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Molecular Characterization of Circulating Rota Viral Strain causing infantile diarrhoea in Tripura, North East India

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u00a0Ankurita Bhowmik, Apurba Sarkar, Saikat Majumder, Ayan Modak, Niladri Sekhar Das, Sanjib Kumar Debbarma, Harpreet Kaur, Tapan Majumdar,

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nJanuary 10, 2023 at 9:46 am

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Introduction: North Eastern India is geographically distinct from rest of India and the trend of Rota viral diarrhoea among children below 5 years of age group is not well studied yet. The Government of India introduced the oral rotavirus vaccine (ROTAVAC) in 2016 as part of the Universal Immunization Programme in different parts of India. Objective: (1). To determine the proportion of circulating Rotavirus strains causing acute viral gastroenteritis (AGE) among children below 5 years of age group. (2). Molecular characterization of Rotavirus genotypes. (3). Impact of vaccination on pattern of circulation of different Rotavirus genotype. Methods: Stool samples were collected between August 2016 to May 2019 and subjected to VP6 antigen detection of Group A Rotavirus by ELISA followed by genotyping by Semi-nested Polymerase Chain Reaction. The statistical analysis was done using Graph pad Prism 9. The categorical variables were distributed as proportions and the p-value was calculated by using Pearson’s chi-square test and Fisher’s exact test. p-Value of <0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: Among the diarrheal episodes of the study subjects 39.3% was positive for rotavirus. G3P(8) was the predominant genotype followed by G1P(8). These genotypes alone contributed 51.1% and 23.8% respectively among the positive cases. A relatively new genotype, G9P(4) emerged during 2018–2019 with a prevalence of 6.8% that was not noticed during 2016–2017. Conclusion: This study highlights the importance of monitoring the trend of circulating rotavirus strains, which may help in appropriate management and control of Rotaviral diarrhoea among paediatric population

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Volume :u00a0u00a011 | Issue :u00a0u00a03 | Received :u00a0u00a0August 19, 2021 | Accepted :u00a0u00a0October 27, 2021 | Published :u00a0u00a0November 29, 2021n[if 424 equals=”Regular Issue”][This article belongs to Research & Reviews: A Journal of Microbiology & Virology(rrjomv)] [/if 424][if 424 equals=”Special Issue”][This article belongs to Special Issue Molecular Characterization of Circulating Rota Viral Strain causing infantile diarrhoea in Tripura, North East India under section in Research & Reviews: A Journal of Microbiology & Virology(rrjomv)] [/if 424]
Keywords Acute gastroenteritis, Rotavirus, Circulating Genotype, Semi-nested PCR, ROTAVAC

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1. Giri, S., Nair, N.P., Mathew, A. et al. Rotavirus gastroenteritis in Indian children < 5 years hospitalized for diarrhoea, 2012 to 2016. BMC Public Health 19, 69 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-6406-0.
2. Jacob John, Rajiv Sarkar, Jayaprakash Muliyil, et al., Rotavirus gastroenteritis in India, 2011–2013: Revised estimates of disease burden and potential impact of vaccines, Vaccine, Volume 32, Supplement 1,2014,Pages A5-A9,ISSN 0264-410X,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.03.004.
3. Bhandari N, Rongsen-Chandola T, Bavdekar A, et al. Efficacy of a monovalent human-bovine (116E) rotavirus vaccine in Indian infants: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2014;383(9935):2136-2143. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)62630-6.
4. World Health Organization. Manual of rotavirus detection and characterization methods. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2009.https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/70122/ WHO_IVB_08.17_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. Accessed on 15th March 2021.
5. Gouvea, V, R I Glass, P Woods et al. “Polymerase chain reaction amplification and typing of rotavirus nucleic acid from stool specimens.” Journal of clinical microbiology vol. 28,2 (1990): 276-82. doi:10.1128/JCM.28.2.276-282.1990.
6. Grimwood, K., Lambert, S.B. & Milne, R.J. Rotavirus Infections and Vaccines. Pediatr-Drugs 12, 235–256 (2010). https://doi.org/10.2165/11537200-000000000-00000.
7. Van Doorn LJ, Kleter B, Hoefnagel E, et al. Detection and genotyping of human rotavirus VP4 and VP7 genes by reverse transcriptase PCR and reverse hybridization. J ClinMicrobiol. 2009;47(9):2704-2712. doi:10.1128/JCM.00378-09.
8. Saluja T, Dhingra MS, Sharma SD, et al. Association of rotavirus strains and severity of gastroenteritis in Indian children. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2017;13(3):711-716. doi:10.1080/21645515.2016.1238994.
9. Kang G, Desai R, Arora R, et al. Diversity of circulating rotavirus strains in children hospitalized with diarrhea in India, 2005-2009. Vaccine. 2013;31(27):2879-2883. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.04.030.
10. Babji S, Arumugam R, Sarvanabhavan A, et al. Multi-center surveillance of rotavirus diarrhea in hospitalized children <5 years of age in India, 2009-2012. Vaccine. 2014;32Suppl 1:A10-A12. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.03.001.
11. Saluja T, Sharma SD, Gupta M, et al. A multicenter prospective hospital-based surveillance to estimate the burden of rotavirus gastroenteritis in children less than five years of age in India. Vaccine. 2014;32Suppl 1:A13-A19. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.03.030.
12. Boni-cisse, C., Meite, S., Mlan, A.B. et al. Genotypic characterization of rotavirus in children under 5 years circulating in Côte D’Ivoire from 2010 to 2013. Virol J 15, 78 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12985-018-0973-z.
13. Tate JE, Burton AH, Boschi-Pinto C, et al. 2008 estimate of worldwide rotavirus-associated mortality in children younger than 5 years before the introduction of universal rotavirus vaccination programmes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2012;12(2):136-141.
14. Kahn, G., Fitzwater, S., Tate, J. et al. Epidemiology and prospects for prevention of rotavirus disease in India. Indian Pediatr 49, 467–474 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13312-012-0076-7.
15. Anca IA, Furtunescu FL, Pleşca D, Streinu-Cercel A, Rugină S, Holl K. Hospital-based surveillance to estimate the burden of rotavirus gastroenteritis in children below five years of age in Romania. Germs. 2014;4(2):30-40. Published 2014 Jun 2. doi:10.11599/germs.2014.1053.
16. Rahman, M., Matthijnssens J, Yang X et al. Evolutionary history and global spread of the emerging g12 human rotaviruses. Journal of virology, 81(5), 2382–2390. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01622-06.

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[if 424 not_equal=”Regular Issue”] Regular Issue[/if 424] Open Access Article

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Research & Reviews: A Journal of Microbiology & Virology

ISSN: 2230-9853

Editors Overview

rrjomv maintains an Editorial Board of practicing researchers from around the world, to ensure manuscripts are handled by editors who are experts in the field of study.

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    Ankurita Bhowmik, Apurba Sarkar, Saikat Majumder, Ayan Modak, Niladri Sekhar Das, Sanjib Kumar Debbarma, Harpreet Kaur, Tapan Majumdar

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  1. Research Assistant, Research Assistant, Non-medical Scientist, SRF, Medical Scientist, Professor, Scientist F, Professor,Department of Microbiology, Agartala Government Medical College, Agartala, Department of Microbiology, Agartala Government Medical College, Agartala, Department of Microbiology, Agartala Government Medical College, Agartala, Department of Microbiology, Agartala Government Medical College, Agartala, Department of Microbiology, Agartala Government Medical College, Agartala, Department of Microbiology, Agartala Government Medical College, Agartala, Division of Epidemiology and Communicable Diseases, ICMR/DHR, MoHFW, Department of Microbiology, Agartala Government Medical College, Agartala,Tripura, Tripura, Tripura, Tripura, Tripura, Tripura, New Delhi, Tripura,India, India, India, India, India, India, India, India

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Abstract

nIntroduction: North Eastern India is geographically distinct from rest of India and the trend of Rota viral diarrhoea among children below 5 years of age group is not well studied yet. The Government of India introduced the oral rotavirus vaccine (ROTAVAC) in 2016 as part of the Universal Immunization Programme in different parts of India. Objective: (1). To determine the proportion of circulating Rotavirus strains causing acute viral gastroenteritis (AGE) among children below 5 years of age group. (2). Molecular characterization of Rotavirus genotypes. (3). Impact of vaccination on pattern of circulation of different Rotavirus genotype. Methods: Stool samples were collected between August 2016 to May 2019 and subjected to VP6 antigen detection of Group A Rotavirus by ELISA followed by genotyping by Semi-nested Polymerase Chain Reaction. The statistical analysis was done using Graph pad Prism 9. The categorical variables were distributed as proportions and the p-value was calculated by using Pearson’s chi-square test and Fisher’s exact test. p-Value of <0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: Among the diarrheal episodes of the study subjects 39.3% was positive for rotavirus. G3P(8) was the predominant genotype followed by G1P(8). These genotypes alone contributed 51.1% and 23.8% respectively among the positive cases. A relatively new genotype, G9P(4) emerged during 2018–2019 with a prevalence of 6.8% that was not noticed during 2016–2017. Conclusion: This study highlights the importance of monitoring the trend of circulating rotavirus strains, which may help in appropriate management and control of Rotaviral diarrhoea among paediatric populationn

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Keywords: Acute gastroenteritis, Rotavirus, Circulating Genotype, Semi-nested PCR, ROTAVAC

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1. Giri, S., Nair, N.P., Mathew, A. et al. Rotavirus gastroenteritis in Indian children < 5 years hospitalized for diarrhoea, 2012 to 2016. BMC Public Health 19, 69 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-6406-0.
2. Jacob John, Rajiv Sarkar, Jayaprakash Muliyil, et al., Rotavirus gastroenteritis in India, 2011–2013: Revised estimates of disease burden and potential impact of vaccines, Vaccine, Volume 32, Supplement 1,2014,Pages A5-A9,ISSN 0264-410X,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.03.004.
3. Bhandari N, Rongsen-Chandola T, Bavdekar A, et al. Efficacy of a monovalent human-bovine (116E) rotavirus vaccine in Indian infants: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2014;383(9935):2136-2143. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)62630-6.
4. World Health Organization. Manual of rotavirus detection and characterization methods. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2009.https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/70122/ WHO_IVB_08.17_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. Accessed on 15th March 2021.
5. Gouvea, V, R I Glass, P Woods et al. “Polymerase chain reaction amplification and typing of rotavirus nucleic acid from stool specimens.” Journal of clinical microbiology vol. 28,2 (1990): 276-82. doi:10.1128/JCM.28.2.276-282.1990.
6. Grimwood, K., Lambert, S.B. & Milne, R.J. Rotavirus Infections and Vaccines. Pediatr-Drugs 12, 235–256 (2010). https://doi.org/10.2165/11537200-000000000-00000.
7. Van Doorn LJ, Kleter B, Hoefnagel E, et al. Detection and genotyping of human rotavirus VP4 and VP7 genes by reverse transcriptase PCR and reverse hybridization. J ClinMicrobiol. 2009;47(9):2704-2712. doi:10.1128/JCM.00378-09.
8. Saluja T, Dhingra MS, Sharma SD, et al. Association of rotavirus strains and severity of gastroenteritis in Indian children. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2017;13(3):711-716. doi:10.1080/21645515.2016.1238994.
9. Kang G, Desai R, Arora R, et al. Diversity of circulating rotavirus strains in children hospitalized with diarrhea in India, 2005-2009. Vaccine. 2013;31(27):2879-2883. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.04.030.
10. Babji S, Arumugam R, Sarvanabhavan A, et al. Multi-center surveillance of rotavirus diarrhea in hospitalized children <5 years of age in India, 2009-2012. Vaccine. 2014;32Suppl 1:A10-A12. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.03.001.
11. Saluja T, Sharma SD, Gupta M, et al. A multicenter prospective hospital-based surveillance to estimate the burden of rotavirus gastroenteritis in children less than five years of age in India. Vaccine. 2014;32Suppl 1:A13-A19. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.03.030.
12. Boni-cisse, C., Meite, S., Mlan, A.B. et al. Genotypic characterization of rotavirus in children under 5 years circulating in Côte D’Ivoire from 2010 to 2013. Virol J 15, 78 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12985-018-0973-z.
13. Tate JE, Burton AH, Boschi-Pinto C, et al. 2008 estimate of worldwide rotavirus-associated mortality in children younger than 5 years before the introduction of universal rotavirus vaccination programmes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2012;12(2):136-141.
14. Kahn, G., Fitzwater, S., Tate, J. et al. Epidemiology and prospects for prevention of rotavirus disease in India. Indian Pediatr 49, 467–474 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13312-012-0076-7.
15. Anca IA, Furtunescu FL, Pleşca D, Streinu-Cercel A, Rugină S, Holl K. Hospital-based surveillance to estimate the burden of rotavirus gastroenteritis in children below five years of age in Romania. Germs. 2014;4(2):30-40. Published 2014 Jun 2. doi:10.11599/germs.2014.1053.
16. Rahman, M., Matthijnssens J, Yang X et al. Evolutionary history and global spread of the emerging g12 human rotaviruses. Journal of virology, 81(5), 2382–2390. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01622-06.

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Regular Issue Open Access Article

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Research & Reviews: A Journal of Microbiology & Virology

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[if 344 not_equal=””]ISSN: 2230-9853[/if 344]

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Volume 11
Issue 3
Received August 19, 2021
Accepted October 27, 2021
Published November 29, 2021

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RRJoMV

Antibacterial Activities of Medicinal Plant Leaves Extract Against Isolated Escherichia coli Bacteria from Different Water Sources

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By [foreach 286]u00a0

u00a0Santhanam Selvaraj, Chellasamy Prashanth, Gurusamy Ponra, Kamatchi Rameshkumar,

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nJanuary 10, 2023 at 8:43 am

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Objective: Escherichia coli are the most common pathogenic bacteria to accountable for food and waterborne illness. Therefore, in this way the study was conducted to resolve the occurrence of E. coli bacteria from different water sources in around Tamil Nadu along with to determine their antibiotic resistance profiles. Methods: Water samples were analysed for the presence of E. coli bacteria using specific agar media Eosin Methylene Blue and McConkeys. Colony morphology, Gram staining, various biochemical tests and antibacterial tests performed by disc diffusion method were used to confirm E. coli bacteria. Results: The isolated bacteria were susceptible to Gentamycin (Mullai & Dindigul 18mm) and Tetracycline (Mullai 16mm &Vaigai 18mm) at 37°C for 24 hours. The isolate was susceptible to acetone leaves extract of Abutilon indicum, Calotropis gigantean and Solanum trilobatum in various concentrations (50μl, 75μl, & 100μl) and of A. indicum was most effective inhibition of zone formed in Mullai 24mm, Vaigai 18mm and Dindigul 23mm, triplicate value respectively. Conclusions: In this study revealed that E. coli bacteria were resistant to some antibiotics drugs. Compared to chemical antibiotic, the acetone leaves extract of A. indicum showed excellent inhibition effect (Mullai (24mm), and Dindigul drinking water (23mm) in 100μl concentrations only. But S. trilobatum was showed equal inhibition effect against Vaigai river water (18mm). Therefore, E. coli bacterium was controlled by natural antibiotics of A. indicum and it may reduce the resistance power of food and waterborne illness.

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Volume :u00a0u00a011 | Issue :u00a0u00a03 | Received :u00a0u00a0September 27, 2021 | Accepted :u00a0u00a0November 25, 2021 | Published :u00a0u00a0January 7, 2022n[if 424 equals=”Regular Issue”][This article belongs to Research & Reviews: A Journal of Microbiology & Virology(rrjomv)] [/if 424][if 424 equals=”Special Issue”][This article belongs to Special Issue Antibacterial Activities of Medicinal Plant Leaves Extract Against Isolated Escherichia coli Bacteria from Different Water Sources under section in Research & Reviews: A Journal of Microbiology & Virology(rrjomv)] [/if 424]
Keywords Escherichia coli, Zone of inhibition, Abutilon indicum, Gram staining, Water borne illness.

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2. WHO traditional medicine strategy, Geneva: WHO; 2018.
3. Thirumurugan, K., Shihabudeen, M.S. and Hansi, P.D., 2010. Antimicrobial activity and phytochemical analysis of selected Indian folk medicinal plants. steroids, 1(7), pp.430-34.
4. Chew, A.L., Jessica, J.J.A. and Sasidharan, S., 2012. Antioxidant and antibacterial activity of different parts of Leucas aspera. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine, 2(3), pp.176-180.
5. Richard, F.T., Joshua, A.T. and Philips, A.J., 2013. Effect of aqueous extract of leaf and bark of guava (Psidium guajava) on fungi Microsporum gypseum and Trichophyton mentagrophytes, and bacteria Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis. Advancement in Medicinal Plant Research, 1(2), pp.45-48.
6. Sarmiento, W.C., Maramba, C.C. and Gonzales, M.L.M., 2011. An in-vitro study on the antibacterial effect of neem (Azadirachta indica) leaf extract on methicillin-sensitive and Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. PIDSP J, 12(1), pp.40-45.
7. Kalimuthu, K., Vijayakumar, S. and Senthilkumar, R., 2010. Antimicrobial activity of the biodiesel plant, Jatropha curcas L. International Journal of Pharma and Bio Sciences, 1(3), pp.1-5.
8. Aliero, A.A. and Wara, S.H., 2009. Validating the medicinal potential of Leptadenia hastata. African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 3(6), pp.235-238.
9. MANTHABE, M., Nikolova, R.V., Lall, N. and Nyazema, N.Z., 2006. Antibacterial activities of medicinal plants used for the treatment of diarrhoea in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 105(1-2), pp.286-293.
10. Mittal J. Tinosporacordifolia: a multipurpose medicinal plant- A review. Journal of Medicinal Plants Studies, 2014: (2):32-47.
11. Gyles C. The growing problem of antimicrobial resistance.Can Vet J, 2011; 52 (8), pp. 817-820.
12. Sagar, K., Bashir, Y., Phukan, M.M. and Konwar, B.K., 2013. Isolation of lipolytic bacteria from waste contaminated soil: A study with regard to process optimization for lipase. Int. J. Sci. Technol. Res, 2(10), pp.214-218.
13. Seidler, R.J. and Starr, M.P., 1969. Factors affecting the intracellular parasitic growth of Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus developing within Escherichia coli. Journal of Bacteriology, 97(2), pp.912-923.
14. AbouzeedYM, ElfahemA, Zgheel F, Ahmed MO. Antibacterial in-vitro activities of selected medicinal plants against methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus from Libyan environment. J Environ Anal Toxicol 2013; 3: 194.
15. El-Hefny, M., Ashmawy, N.A., Salem, M.Z. and Salem, A.Z., 2017. Antibacterial activities of the phytochemicals-characterized extracts of Callistemon viminalis, Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Conyza dioscoridis against the growth of some phytopathogenic bacteria. Microbial pathogenesis, 113, pp.348-356.
16. Bauer AW, Kirby WM, Sherris JC, Truck M. Antibiotic susceptibility testing by a standard single disc method. American Journal of Pathology. 1966; 45: 493-496.
17. Odonkor ST and Ampofo JK. Escherichia Coli as an Indicator of Bacteriological Quality of Water: An Overview. Microbiology Research. 2013: Vol. 4 No. 1.DOI: 10.4081/mr.2013.e2.
18. Adzitey F, Haruna A. Antibiotic Susceptibility of Escherichia coli isolated from some Drinking Water Sources in Tamale Metropolis of Ghana. Current Research in Bacteriology. 2015: Volume 8 (2): 34-40.
19. Ahmed KKM, Rana AC, Dixit VK. Calotropis species (Ascelpediaceae): A comprehensive review. Pharmacog. Maga, 2005; 1(1), 4852.
20. Singh D, Gupta RS. Modulatory Influence of Abutilon indicum Leaves on Hepatic Antioxidant Status and Lipid Peroxidation against Alcohol-Induced Liver Damage in Rats. Pharmacology online. 2008, 1: 253-262.
21. Rahuman AA, Gopalakrishnan G, Venkatesan P, Geetha K. Isolation and identification of mosquito larvicidal compound from Abutilon indicum (Linn.) Sweet. Parasitol Res. 2008; 102(5): 981-8.
22. Chandrashekhar VM, Nagappa AN, Channesh TS, Habbu PV. RaoKP. Antidiarrhoeal activity of Abutilon indicum Linn leaf extract. J Natural Remedies, 2004; 1(4): 12-6.
23. Roshan S, Ali S, Khan A, Tazneem B,Purohit MG. Wound Healing activity of Abutilon Indicum. Phcog Mag, 2008; 4, 85-88.
24. Bhajipale S.N. Evaluation of Anti-Arthritic Activity of Methanolic Extract of Abutilon Indicum. International Journal of ayurvedic and herbal medicine, 2012; 2(3): 598-603.
25. Famuyide IM, Aro OA 1, Fasina OF, Eloff NF, McGaw JL. Antibacterial activity and mode of action of acetone crude leaf extracts of under-investigated Syzygium and Eugenia (Myrtaceae) species on multidrug resistant porcine diarrhea genic Escherichia coli.BMC Vet Res. 2019; 15: 162.
26. Alia M, Haque S. A comparative study of in vitro antimicrobial, antioxidant and cytotoxic activity of Albizialebbeck and Acacia nilotica stem bark Bulletin of Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University.2018; Volume 56, Issue 1, P 34-38.
27. Nicoline F, Tanih, Roland N, Ndip. Evaluation of the Acetone and Aqueous Extracts of Mature Stem Bark of Sclerocaryabirrea for Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Properties Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2012; https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/834156.
28. Pandurangan A, Khosa RL, Hemalatha S. et al. Evaluation of Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Activity of Root Extract of Solanum Trilobatum Linn J. Pharma. Res. 2008; 7(3):217–221.
29. Krishnan, K., Ramalingam, R.T, Venkatesan, G. Solanum trilobatum (Solanaceae) – an overview J. App. Bio. Sci. 2008; 2(3):109–112.
30. Franz E, Veenman C, Hoek A, Husman A, Blaak H. Pathogenic Escherichia coli producing Extended-Spectrum beta-Lactamases isolated from surface water and wastewater, Scientific Reports, 2015; vol. 5, no. 1, ID 14372.

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[if 424 not_equal=”Regular Issue”] Regular Issue[/if 424] Open Access Article

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Research & Reviews: A Journal of Microbiology & Virology

ISSN: 2230-9853

Editors Overview

rrjomv maintains an Editorial Board of practicing researchers from around the world, to ensure manuscripts are handled by editors who are experts in the field of study.

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    Santhanam Selvaraj, Chellasamy Prashanth, Gurusamy Ponra, Kamatchi Rameshkumar

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  1. Assistant Professor, Research Scholar, Associate Professor, Associate Professor,Vivekananda College, Madurai Kamaraj University, Vivekananda College, Madurai Kamaraj University, Vivekananda College, Madurai Kamaraj University,Madurai, Tamil Nadu, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, Madurai, Tamil Nadu,India, India, India, India

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nObjective: Escherichia coli are the most common pathogenic bacteria to accountable for food and waterborne illness. Therefore, in this way the study was conducted to resolve the occurrence of E. coli bacteria from different water sources in around Tamil Nadu along with to determine their antibiotic resistance profiles. Methods: Water samples were analysed for the presence of E. coli bacteria using specific agar media Eosin Methylene Blue and McConkeys. Colony morphology, Gram staining, various biochemical tests and antibacterial tests performed by disc diffusion method were used to confirm E. coli bacteria. Results: The isolated bacteria were susceptible to Gentamycin (Mullai & Dindigul 18mm) and Tetracycline (Mullai 16mm &Vaigai 18mm) at 37°C for 24 hours. The isolate was susceptible to acetone leaves extract of Abutilon indicum, Calotropis gigantean and Solanum trilobatum in various concentrations (50μl, 75μl, & 100μl) and of A. indicum was most effective inhibition of zone formed in Mullai 24mm, Vaigai 18mm and Dindigul 23mm, triplicate value respectively. Conclusions: In this study revealed that E. coli bacteria were resistant to some antibiotics drugs. Compared to chemical antibiotic, the acetone leaves extract of A. indicum showed excellent inhibition effect (Mullai (24mm), and Dindigul drinking water (23mm) in 100μl concentrations only. But S. trilobatum was showed equal inhibition effect against Vaigai river water (18mm). Therefore, E. coli bacterium was controlled by natural antibiotics of A. indicum and it may reduce the resistance power of food and waterborne illness.n

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Keywords: Escherichia coli, Zone of inhibition, Abutilon indicum, Gram staining, Water borne illness.

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1. Gratus, C., Wilson, S., Greenfield, S.M., Damery, S.L., Warmington, S.A., Grieve, R., Steven, N.M. and Routledge, P., 2009. The use of herbal medicines by people with cancer: a qualitative study. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 9(1), pp.1-7.
2. WHO traditional medicine strategy, Geneva: WHO; 2018.
3. Thirumurugan, K., Shihabudeen, M.S. and Hansi, P.D., 2010. Antimicrobial activity and phytochemical analysis of selected Indian folk medicinal plants. steroids, 1(7), pp.430-34.
4. Chew, A.L., Jessica, J.J.A. and Sasidharan, S., 2012. Antioxidant and antibacterial activity of different parts of Leucas aspera. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine, 2(3), pp.176-180.
5. Richard, F.T., Joshua, A.T. and Philips, A.J., 2013. Effect of aqueous extract of leaf and bark of guava (Psidium guajava) on fungi Microsporum gypseum and Trichophyton mentagrophytes, and bacteria Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis. Advancement in Medicinal Plant Research, 1(2), pp.45-48.
6. Sarmiento, W.C., Maramba, C.C. and Gonzales, M.L.M., 2011. An in-vitro study on the antibacterial effect of neem (Azadirachta indica) leaf extract on methicillin-sensitive and Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. PIDSP J, 12(1), pp.40-45.
7. Kalimuthu, K., Vijayakumar, S. and Senthilkumar, R., 2010. Antimicrobial activity of the biodiesel plant, Jatropha curcas L. International Journal of Pharma and Bio Sciences, 1(3), pp.1-5.
8. Aliero, A.A. and Wara, S.H., 2009. Validating the medicinal potential of Leptadenia hastata. African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 3(6), pp.235-238.
9. MANTHABE, M., Nikolova, R.V., Lall, N. and Nyazema, N.Z., 2006. Antibacterial activities of medicinal plants used for the treatment of diarrhoea in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 105(1-2), pp.286-293.
10. Mittal J. Tinosporacordifolia: a multipurpose medicinal plant- A review. Journal of Medicinal Plants Studies, 2014: (2):32-47.
11. Gyles C. The growing problem of antimicrobial resistance.Can Vet J, 2011; 52 (8), pp. 817-820.
12. Sagar, K., Bashir, Y., Phukan, M.M. and Konwar, B.K., 2013. Isolation of lipolytic bacteria from waste contaminated soil: A study with regard to process optimization for lipase. Int. J. Sci. Technol. Res, 2(10), pp.214-218.
13. Seidler, R.J. and Starr, M.P., 1969. Factors affecting the intracellular parasitic growth of Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus developing within Escherichia coli. Journal of Bacteriology, 97(2), pp.912-923.
14. AbouzeedYM, ElfahemA, Zgheel F, Ahmed MO. Antibacterial in-vitro activities of selected medicinal plants against methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus from Libyan environment. J Environ Anal Toxicol 2013; 3: 194.
15. El-Hefny, M., Ashmawy, N.A., Salem, M.Z. and Salem, A.Z., 2017. Antibacterial activities of the phytochemicals-characterized extracts of Callistemon viminalis, Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Conyza dioscoridis against the growth of some phytopathogenic bacteria. Microbial pathogenesis, 113, pp.348-356.
16. Bauer AW, Kirby WM, Sherris JC, Truck M. Antibiotic susceptibility testing by a standard single disc method. American Journal of Pathology. 1966; 45: 493-496.
17. Odonkor ST and Ampofo JK. Escherichia Coli as an Indicator of Bacteriological Quality of Water: An Overview. Microbiology Research. 2013: Vol. 4 No. 1.DOI: 10.4081/mr.2013.e2.
18. Adzitey F, Haruna A. Antibiotic Susceptibility of Escherichia coli isolated from some Drinking Water Sources in Tamale Metropolis of Ghana. Current Research in Bacteriology. 2015: Volume 8 (2): 34-40.
19. Ahmed KKM, Rana AC, Dixit VK. Calotropis species (Ascelpediaceae): A comprehensive review. Pharmacog. Maga, 2005; 1(1), 4852.
20. Singh D, Gupta RS. Modulatory Influence of Abutilon indicum Leaves on Hepatic Antioxidant Status and Lipid Peroxidation against Alcohol-Induced Liver Damage in Rats. Pharmacology online. 2008, 1: 253-262.
21. Rahuman AA, Gopalakrishnan G, Venkatesan P, Geetha K. Isolation and identification of mosquito larvicidal compound from Abutilon indicum (Linn.) Sweet. Parasitol Res. 2008; 102(5): 981-8.
22. Chandrashekhar VM, Nagappa AN, Channesh TS, Habbu PV. RaoKP. Antidiarrhoeal activity of Abutilon indicum Linn leaf extract. J Natural Remedies, 2004; 1(4): 12-6.
23. Roshan S, Ali S, Khan A, Tazneem B,Purohit MG. Wound Healing activity of Abutilon Indicum. Phcog Mag, 2008; 4, 85-88.
24. Bhajipale S.N. Evaluation of Anti-Arthritic Activity of Methanolic Extract of Abutilon Indicum. International Journal of ayurvedic and herbal medicine, 2012; 2(3): 598-603.
25. Famuyide IM, Aro OA 1, Fasina OF, Eloff NF, McGaw JL. Antibacterial activity and mode of action of acetone crude leaf extracts of under-investigated Syzygium and Eugenia (Myrtaceae) species on multidrug resistant porcine diarrhea genic Escherichia coli.BMC Vet Res. 2019; 15: 162.
26. Alia M, Haque S. A comparative study of in vitro antimicrobial, antioxidant and cytotoxic activity of Albizialebbeck and Acacia nilotica stem bark Bulletin of Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University.2018; Volume 56, Issue 1, P 34-38.
27. Nicoline F, Tanih, Roland N, Ndip. Evaluation of the Acetone and Aqueous Extracts of Mature Stem Bark of Sclerocaryabirrea for Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Properties Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2012; https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/834156.
28. Pandurangan A, Khosa RL, Hemalatha S. et al. Evaluation of Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Activity of Root Extract of Solanum Trilobatum Linn J. Pharma. Res. 2008; 7(3):217–221.
29. Krishnan, K., Ramalingam, R.T, Venkatesan, G. Solanum trilobatum (Solanaceae) – an overview J. App. Bio. Sci. 2008; 2(3):109–112.
30. Franz E, Veenman C, Hoek A, Husman A, Blaak H. Pathogenic Escherichia coli producing Extended-Spectrum beta-Lactamases isolated from surface water and wastewater, Scientific Reports, 2015; vol. 5, no. 1, ID 14372.

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Volume 11
Issue 3
Received September 27, 2021
Accepted November 25, 2021
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Synergistic and Antagonistic Effects of Azo-Schiff Base with Some Antibiotics on Gram-Positive Bacterial Isolates

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u00a0Salimah Aboulqasim Al, Najat Ramadan Elzawi, Abdelhamid Mohamed Elyassiry,

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Antibacterial resistance has brought an urgent need to find a solution to the problem of antibacterial resistance and increase the effectiveness of antibiotics. Therefore, our current study was aimed to test the three concentrations viz., 0.5 mg/ml, 5 mg/ml and 50 mg/ml of Azo-Schiff base against Grampositive bacteria—Bacillus cereus, Micrococcus lutes, Staphylococcus aureus—to compare the effects of Schiff base alone or along with antibiotics on the viability of bacteria. Our results showed no antibacterial activity of Schiff base (L2) against three bacterial strains except S. aureus at concentration of 50 mg/ml. Synergistic effects of Schiff base was observed against B. cereus with only antibiotics CN10, but antagonistic effects was observed at all concentrations with all antibiotics.

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Volume :u00a0u00a011 | Issue :u00a0u00a02 | Received :u00a0u00a0March 17, 2021 | Accepted :u00a0u00a0May 20, 2021 | Published :u00a0u00a0August 27, 2021n[if 424 equals=”Regular Issue”][This article belongs to Research & Reviews: A Journal of Microbiology & Virology(rrjomv)] [/if 424][if 424 equals=”Special Issue”][This article belongs to Special Issue Synergistic and Antagonistic Effects of Azo-Schiff Base with Some Antibiotics on Gram-Positive Bacterial Isolates under section in Research & Reviews: A Journal of Microbiology & Virology(rrjomv)] [/if 424]
Keywords Resistance, Schiff base, synergistic effect, antagonistic effect, antibacterial

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1. Hafiz MS, Dildar A, Hiva M. Antimicrobial salicyladehyde Schiff bases: Synthesis, characterization and evaluation. Pac J Pharm Sci. 2015; 28(2): 449–455p.
2. Mkpenie VN, Essien EE, Mkpenie LV. Antimicrobial activity of Azo-schiff bases derived from salicyaldehyde and PARA- Subtituted Aniline. World J Pharma Res. 2015; 4(12): 62–66p.
3. Arulmurugan S, Kavitha HP, Venktraman BR. Biological activity of Schiff base and its complex: A review. Rasayan J Chem. 2010; 3(3): 385–410p.
4. Al-Hakimi AN. Synthesis, characterization and microbicides activities of N- (hydroxyl- 4(4-nitrophenyl) diazenyl)benzylidene) -2-nitrophenylamin) Acetohydrazide metal complex. Egyptian J Chemistry. 2015; 63(4): 1509–1525p.
5. Eissa HH. Synthesis and characterization of new Azo-schiff bases and study biological activity. J Curr Res Sci. 2013; 1(2): 96–103p.
6. Abdelrahman LH, Abu-Dief AM, Hamdan SK, Selee AA. Nano stricter Iron (II) and copper (II) Schiff base complexes of a NNO- Tridentate ligand as new antibiotic Agents: spectral, thermal behaviors and DNA binding ability. Int J Nano Chemo. 2015; 12: 65–77p.
7. Alzobe W, Al-hamidani, AS. Ahmed SD, Ko YG. A new Azo-Schiff base: Synthesis characterization biological activity and theoretical studies of its complexes. Appl Organometal Chem. 2017; 3895: 1–15p.
8. Gil C. Toxicological effects of food addititives-Azo dyes. Thesis. Swidish University of Agricultural Science; 2014. 21p.
9. El-ajaily MM, Abdullah FI, Suliman MS, Akasha RA. Experimental studies of Azo Schiff base chelates and their cirrsion inhibition behavior. Asian J Adv Basic Sci. 2014; 2(2): 2347–4114p.
10. Tendenica EA. Standards for antimicrobial disk diffusion susceptibility test for bacteria isolated from animals, 2nd edition. Philippines: Aquaculture Department Southeast Asia Fisheries, Development Center; 2014. 13–29p.
11. London JD, Muriel AA, Ceron DP. Synthesis antibiotic bacterial activity and DNA interactions of lanthanide III complexes of N(4)-substituted thiosemcarbazone. Univ Sci. 2018; 23(2): 141–169p.
12. Majeed NS, Ganim HT. Synthesis identification and study the biological activity of some new derivitives of pyrazoles and isoxazoles. Thesis. Iraq: University of Kufa; 2009. 27–83p.
13. Chamber HF, Deleo FR. Waves of resisitance: Staphlococcus aureus in the antibiotic era. Nat Rev Microbio. 2011; 7(9): 629–641p.
14. Livermore DM. Bacterial resistance: origins, epidemiology and impact. Clinical Infection Disease. 2003; 36(1): 11–23p.
15. Tenover FC. Development and spread of bacterial resistance to antimicrobial agent: An overview. Clinical Infection Disease. 2001; 33(3): 108–115p.

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ISSN: 2230-9853

Editors Overview

rrjomv maintains an Editorial Board of practicing researchers from around the world, to ensure manuscripts are handled by editors who are experts in the field of study.

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  1. Lecturer, Lecturer, Lecturer,Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of Sabha, Sabha, Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of Benghazi, Benghazi, Department of Zoology, Faculty of Education, University of Benghazi, Benghazi,Libya, Libya, Libya,North Africa, North Africa, North Africa

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nAntibacterial resistance has brought an urgent need to find a solution to the problem of antibacterial resistance and increase the effectiveness of antibiotics. Therefore, our current study was aimed to test the three concentrations viz., 0.5 mg/ml, 5 mg/ml and 50 mg/ml of Azo-Schiff base against Grampositive bacteria—Bacillus cereus, Micrococcus lutes, Staphylococcus aureus—to compare the effects of Schiff base alone or along with antibiotics on the viability of bacteria. Our results showed no antibacterial activity of Schiff base (L2) against three bacterial strains except S. aureus at concentration of 50 mg/ml. Synergistic effects of Schiff base was observed against B. cereus with only antibiotics CN10, but antagonistic effects was observed at all concentrations with all antibiotics.n

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Keywords: Resistance, Schiff base, synergistic effect, antagonistic effect, antibacterial

n[if 424 equals=”Regular Issue”][This article belongs to Research & Reviews: A Journal of Microbiology & Virology(rrjomv)]

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1. Hafiz MS, Dildar A, Hiva M. Antimicrobial salicyladehyde Schiff bases: Synthesis, characterization and evaluation. Pac J Pharm Sci. 2015; 28(2): 449–455p.
2. Mkpenie VN, Essien EE, Mkpenie LV. Antimicrobial activity of Azo-schiff bases derived from salicyaldehyde and PARA- Subtituted Aniline. World J Pharma Res. 2015; 4(12): 62–66p.
3. Arulmurugan S, Kavitha HP, Venktraman BR. Biological activity of Schiff base and its complex: A review. Rasayan J Chem. 2010; 3(3): 385–410p.
4. Al-Hakimi AN. Synthesis, characterization and microbicides activities of N- (hydroxyl- 4(4-nitrophenyl) diazenyl)benzylidene) -2-nitrophenylamin) Acetohydrazide metal complex. Egyptian J Chemistry. 2015; 63(4): 1509–1525p.
5. Eissa HH. Synthesis and characterization of new Azo-schiff bases and study biological activity. J Curr Res Sci. 2013; 1(2): 96–103p.
6. Abdelrahman LH, Abu-Dief AM, Hamdan SK, Selee AA. Nano stricter Iron (II) and copper (II) Schiff base complexes of a NNO- Tridentate ligand as new antibiotic Agents: spectral, thermal behaviors and DNA binding ability. Int J Nano Chemo. 2015; 12: 65–77p.
7. Alzobe W, Al-hamidani, AS. Ahmed SD, Ko YG. A new Azo-Schiff base: Synthesis characterization biological activity and theoretical studies of its complexes. Appl Organometal Chem. 2017; 3895: 1–15p.
8. Gil C. Toxicological effects of food addititives-Azo dyes. Thesis. Swidish University of Agricultural Science; 2014. 21p.
9. El-ajaily MM, Abdullah FI, Suliman MS, Akasha RA. Experimental studies of Azo Schiff base chelates and their cirrsion inhibition behavior. Asian J Adv Basic Sci. 2014; 2(2): 2347–4114p.
10. Tendenica EA. Standards for antimicrobial disk diffusion susceptibility test for bacteria isolated from animals, 2nd edition. Philippines: Aquaculture Department Southeast Asia Fisheries, Development Center; 2014. 13–29p.
11. London JD, Muriel AA, Ceron DP. Synthesis antibiotic bacterial activity and DNA interactions of lanthanide III complexes of N(4)-substituted thiosemcarbazone. Univ Sci. 2018; 23(2): 141–169p.
12. Majeed NS, Ganim HT. Synthesis identification and study the biological activity of some new derivitives of pyrazoles and isoxazoles. Thesis. Iraq: University of Kufa; 2009. 27–83p.
13. Chamber HF, Deleo FR. Waves of resisitance: Staphlococcus aureus in the antibiotic era. Nat Rev Microbio. 2011; 7(9): 629–641p.
14. Livermore DM. Bacterial resistance: origins, epidemiology and impact. Clinical Infection Disease. 2003; 36(1): 11–23p.
15. Tenover FC. Development and spread of bacterial resistance to antimicrobial agent: An overview. Clinical Infection Disease. 2001; 33(3): 108–115p.

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Volume 11
Issue 2
Received March 17, 2021
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Antibiotic Resistance: Molecular Mechanisms of Resistance

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u00a0Sandip Zine, Parth Mehta, Ankita Rai, Sayli Sawant,

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Antibiotics are called as ‘Wonder Drugs’, the miracles of modern sciences. They help combat bacteria and prevent their growth. But due to unmonitored and uncontrolled consumption of these antibiotics, there is an emergence of antibiotic resistance. This has led to a series of downfall in the therapeutic potency and efficacy of many drugs. More and more bacteria are becoming Multi-Drug Resistant (MDR); such highly resistant strains of certain bacteria are called Superbugs. The misuse and overconsumption of many antibiotics, has led to a steep rise in the number of antibiotic-resistant strains at a global level, thus elevating global mortality and morbidity rates. This prompted World health Organisation in 2011 to coin a slogan “No action today, no cure tomorrow”. This review gives a piece of detailed information on the origin, molecular mechanisms of antibiotic resistance, supported by factual data and case studies

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Volume :u00a0u00a011 | Issue :u00a0u00a01 | Received :u00a0u00a0November 17, 2020 | Accepted :u00a0u00a0November 19, 2020 | Published :u00a0u00a0April 19, 2021n[if 424 equals=”Regular Issue”][This article belongs to Research & Reviews: A Journal of Microbiology & Virology(rrjomv)] [/if 424][if 424 equals=”Special Issue”][This article belongs to Special Issue Antibiotic Resistance: Molecular Mechanisms of Resistance under section in Research & Reviews: A Journal of Microbiology & Virology(rrjomv)] [/if 424]
Keywords Superbugs, antibiotics, antibiotic resistance, antivirulence therapy, MDR

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3. Chopra R, Alderborn G, Podczeck F, et al. The Influence of Pellet Shape and Surface Properties on the Drug Release from Uncoated and Coated Pellets. Int J Pharm. 2002; 239(1–2): 171–178p.
4. Aminov RI. A Brief History of the Antibiotic Era: Lessons Learned and Challenges for the Future. Front Microbiol. 2010; 1: 134p.
5. Walker D, Fowler T. Annual Report of the Chief Medical Officer. Vol. 2. Infections and the Rise of Antimicrobial Resistance. Department of Health; 2011.
6. World Economic Forum. Global Risks 2013. 8th Edn. 2013. http://www.weforum.org/reports/ global-risks2013-eighth-edition.
7. World Economic Forum. Global Risks 2014. 2014. Report http://www.weforum.org/reports/ global-risks-2014-report.
8. Kojima S, Nikaido H. Permeation Rates of Penicillins Indicate that Escherichia coli Porins Function Principally as Nonspecific Channels. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2013; 110(28): E2629–E2634p.
9. Vargiu AV, Nikaido H. Multidrug Binding Properties of the AcrB Efflux Pump Characterized by Molecular Dynamics Simulations. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2012; 109(50): 20637–20642p.
10. Baroud M, et al. Underlying Mechanisms of Carbapenem Resistance in Extended-Spectrum β-Lactamase-Producing Klebsiellapneumoniae and Escherichia coli Isolates at a Tertiary Care Centre in Lebanon: Role of OXA-48 and NDM-1 Carbapenemases. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2013; 41(1): 75–79p.
11. Wozniak A, et al. Porin Alterations Present in Noncarbapenemase-Producing Enterobacteriaceae with High and Intermediate Levels of Carbapenem Resistance in Chile. J Med Microbiol. 2012; 61(9): 1270–1279p.
12. Bailey AM, et al. RamA, a Member of the AraC/XylS Family, Influences both Virulence and Efflux in Salmonella entericaserovar Typhimurium. J Bacteriol. 2010; 192(6): 1607–1616p.
13. Pomposiello PJ, Bennik MH, Demple B. Genome-Wide Transcriptional Profiling of the Escherichia coli Responses to Superoxide Stress and Sodium Salicylate. J Bacteriol. 2001; 183(13): 3890–3902p.
14. Baucheron S, Nishino K, Monchaux I, et al. Bile-Mediated Activation of the acrAB and to lC Multidrug Efflux Genes occurs Mainly through Transcriptional Derepression of ramA in Salmonella entericaserovar Typhimurium. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2014; 69(9): 2400–6p. doi: 10.1093/jac/dku140. Epub 2014 May 9. PMID: 24816212.
15. Hirakawa H, Inazumi Y, Masaki T, Hirata T, Yamaguchi A. Indole Induces the Expression of Multidrug Exporter Genes in Escherichia coli. Mol Microbiol. 2005; 55(4): 1113–1126p.
16. Nikaido E, Giraud E, Baucheron S, et al. Effects of Indole on Drug Resistance and Virulence of Salmonella entericasero var Typhimurium Revealed by Genome-Wide Analyses. Gut Pathogens. 2012; 4(1): 5p. https://doi.org/10.1186/1757-4749-4-5.
17. Billal DS, Feng J, Leprohon P, et al. Whole Genome Analysis of Linezolid Resistance in Streptococcus Pneumoniae Reveals Resistance and Compensatory Mutations. BMC Genomics. 2011; 12(1): 512p.
18. Gao W. et al. Two Novel Point Mutations in Clinical Staphylococcus aureus Reduce Linezolid Susceptibility and Switch on the Stringent Response to Promote Persistent Infection. PLoS Pathog. 2010; 6(6): e1000944p.
19. Leclercq R. Mechanisms of Resistance to Macrolides and Lincosamides: Nature of the Resistance Elements and Their Clinical Implications. Clin Infect Dis. 2002; 34(4): 482–492p.
20. Kumar N, et al. Crystal Structure of the Transcriptional Regulator Rv1219c of Mycobacterium Tuberculosis. Protein Sci. 2014; 23(4): 423–432p.
21. Vetting MW, et al. Structure of QnrB1, a Plasmidmediated Fluoroquinolone Resistance Factor. J Biol Chem. 2011; 286(28): 25265–25273p.
22. Randall CP, Mariner KR, Chopra I, O’Neill AJ. The Target of Daptomycin is Absent from Escherichia coli and Other Gram-Negative Pathogens. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013; 57(1): 637–639p.
23. Blake KL, O’Neill AJ. Transposon Library Screening for Identification of Genetic Loci Participating in Intrinsic Susceptibility and Acquired Resistance to Anti-Staphylococcal Agents. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2013; 68(1): 12–16p.
24. Livermore DM. Defining an Extended-Spectrum Betalactamase. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2008; 14(Suppl. 1): 3–10p.
25. Nordmann P, Poirel L, Walsh TR, Livermore DM. The Emerging NDM Carbapenemases. Trends Microbiol. 2011; 19(12): 588–595p.
26. Voulgari E, Poulou A, Koumaki V, Tsakris A. Carbapenemase-Producing Enterobacteriaceae: Now that the Storm is Finally Here, How will Timely Detection Help Us Fight Back? Future Microbiol. 2013; 8(1): 27–39p.
27. Johnson AP, Woodford N. Global Spread of Antibiotic Resistance: The Example of New Delhi Metallo-β-Lactamase (NDM)-Mediated Carbapenem Resistance. J Med Microbiol. 2013; 62(Pt 4): 499–513p.
28. Lynch III, JP Clark NM, Zhanel GG. Evolution of antimicrobial resistance among Enterobacteriaceae (focus on extended spectrum β-lactamases and carbapenemases). Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy. 2013;14(2),199–210p.
29. Wright GD. Bacterial Resistance to Antibiotics: Enzymatic Degradation and Modification. Adv Drug Delivery Rev. 2005; 57(10): 1451–1470p.
30. Norris AL, Serpersu EH. Ligand Promiscuity through the Eyes of the Aminoglycoside N3 acetyltransferaseiia. Protein Sci. 2013; 22(7): 916–928p.
31. Levy SB, Marshall B. Antibacterial Resistance Worldwide: Causes, Challenges and Responses. Nat Med. 2004; 10(Suppl. 12): S122–S129p.
32. Jones M, Karlowsky J, Draghi D, Thornsberry C, Sahm D, Nathwani D. Epidemiology and Antibiotic Susceptibility of Bacteria Causing Skin and Soft Tissue Infections in the USA and Europe: A Guide to Appropriate Antimicrobial Therapy. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2003; 22(4): 406–419p.
33. Jones M, Draghi D, Thornsberry C, Karlowsky J, Sahm D, Wenzel R. Emerging Resistance among Bacterial Pathogens in the Intensive Care Unit. A European and North American Surveillance Study (2000–2002). Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob. 2004; 3: 14p.
34. Panlilio A, Culver D, Gaynes R et al. Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in US Hospitals, 1975–1991. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1992; 13(10): 582–586p.
35. Oliveira D, Tomasz A, de Lencastre H. Secrets of Success of a Human Pathogen: Molecular Evolution of Pandemic Clones of Meticillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Lancet Infect Dis. 2002; 2(3): 180–189p.
36. Stefani S, Varaldo P. Epidemiology of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococci in Italy. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2003; 9(12): 1179–1186p.
37. Zhang H, Hackbarth C, Chansky K, Chambers H. A Proteolytic Transmembrane Signaling Pathway and Resistance to -Lactams in Staphylococci. Science. 2001; 291(5510): 1962–1965p.
38. Pinho M, Filipe S, de Lencastre H, Tomasz A. Complementation of the Essential Peptidoglycan Transpeptidase Function of Penicillin-Binding Protein 2 (PBP2) by the Drug Resistance Protein PBP2A in Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol. 2001; 183(22): 6525–6531p.
39. Pinho MG, de Lencastre H, Tomasz A. An Acquired and a Native Penicillin-Binding Protein Cooperate in Building the Cell Wall of Drug-Resistant Staphylococci. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2001; 98(19): 10886–10891p.

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[if 424 not_equal=”Regular Issue”] Regular Issue[/if 424] Open Access Article

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Research & Reviews: A Journal of Microbiology & Virology

ISSN: 2230-9853

Editors Overview

rrjomv maintains an Editorial Board of practicing researchers from around the world, to ensure manuscripts are handled by editors who are experts in the field of study.

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    Sandip Zine, Parth Mehta, Ankita Rai, Sayli Sawant

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  1. Assistant Professor, Student, Student, Student,Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Vivekanand Education Society’s College of Pharmacy, Collector Colony, Chembur, Mumbai, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Vivekanand Education Society’s College of Pharmacy, Collector Colony, Chembur, Mumbai, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Vivekanand Education Society’s College of Pharmacy, Collector Colony, Chembur, Mumbai, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Vivekanand Education Society’s College of Pharmacy, Collector Colony, Chembur, Mumbai,Maharashtra, Maharashtra, Maharashtra, Maharashtra,India, India, India, India

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Abstract

nAntibiotics are called as ‘Wonder Drugs’, the miracles of modern sciences. They help combat bacteria and prevent their growth. But due to unmonitored and uncontrolled consumption of these antibiotics, there is an emergence of antibiotic resistance. This has led to a series of downfall in the therapeutic potency and efficacy of many drugs. More and more bacteria are becoming Multi-Drug Resistant (MDR); such highly resistant strains of certain bacteria are called Superbugs. The misuse and overconsumption of many antibiotics, has led to a steep rise in the number of antibiotic-resistant strains at a global level, thus elevating global mortality and morbidity rates. This prompted World health Organisation in 2011 to coin a slogan “No action today, no cure tomorrow”. This review gives a piece of detailed information on the origin, molecular mechanisms of antibiotic resistance, supported by factual data and case studiesn

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Keywords: Superbugs, antibiotics, antibiotic resistance, antivirulence therapy, MDR

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References

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1. Levy SB, Marshall B. Antibacterial Resistance Worldwide: Causes, Challenges and Responses. Nat Med. 2004; 10(12Suppl): 122–129p.
2. Overview of Bacteria. 2017. http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/infections/bacterial-infections/overview-of-bacteria
3. Chopra R, Alderborn G, Podczeck F, et al. The Influence of Pellet Shape and Surface Properties on the Drug Release from Uncoated and Coated Pellets. Int J Pharm. 2002; 239(1–2): 171–178p.
4. Aminov RI. A Brief History of the Antibiotic Era: Lessons Learned and Challenges for the Future. Front Microbiol. 2010; 1: 134p.
5. Walker D, Fowler T. Annual Report of the Chief Medical Officer. Vol. 2. Infections and the Rise of Antimicrobial Resistance. Department of Health; 2011.
6. World Economic Forum. Global Risks 2013. 8th Edn. 2013. http://www.weforum.org/reports/ global-risks2013-eighth-edition.
7. World Economic Forum. Global Risks 2014. 2014. Report http://www.weforum.org/reports/ global-risks-2014-report.
8. Kojima S, Nikaido H. Permeation Rates of Penicillins Indicate that Escherichia coli Porins Function Principally as Nonspecific Channels. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2013; 110(28): E2629–E2634p.
9. Vargiu AV, Nikaido H. Multidrug Binding Properties of the AcrB Efflux Pump Characterized by Molecular Dynamics Simulations. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2012; 109(50): 20637–20642p.
10. Baroud M, et al. Underlying Mechanisms of Carbapenem Resistance in Extended-Spectrum β-Lactamase-Producing Klebsiellapneumoniae and Escherichia coli Isolates at a Tertiary Care Centre in Lebanon: Role of OXA-48 and NDM-1 Carbapenemases. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2013; 41(1): 75–79p.
11. Wozniak A, et al. Porin Alterations Present in Noncarbapenemase-Producing Enterobacteriaceae with High and Intermediate Levels of Carbapenem Resistance in Chile. J Med Microbiol. 2012; 61(9): 1270–1279p.
12. Bailey AM, et al. RamA, a Member of the AraC/XylS Family, Influences both Virulence and Efflux in Salmonella entericaserovar Typhimurium. J Bacteriol. 2010; 192(6): 1607–1616p.
13. Pomposiello PJ, Bennik MH, Demple B. Genome-Wide Transcriptional Profiling of the Escherichia coli Responses to Superoxide Stress and Sodium Salicylate. J Bacteriol. 2001; 183(13): 3890–3902p.
14. Baucheron S, Nishino K, Monchaux I, et al. Bile-Mediated Activation of the acrAB and to lC Multidrug Efflux Genes occurs Mainly through Transcriptional Derepression of ramA in Salmonella entericaserovar Typhimurium. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2014; 69(9): 2400–6p. doi: 10.1093/jac/dku140. Epub 2014 May 9. PMID: 24816212.
15. Hirakawa H, Inazumi Y, Masaki T, Hirata T, Yamaguchi A. Indole Induces the Expression of Multidrug Exporter Genes in Escherichia coli. Mol Microbiol. 2005; 55(4): 1113–1126p.
16. Nikaido E, Giraud E, Baucheron S, et al. Effects of Indole on Drug Resistance and Virulence of Salmonella entericasero var Typhimurium Revealed by Genome-Wide Analyses. Gut Pathogens. 2012; 4(1): 5p. https://doi.org/10.1186/1757-4749-4-5.
17. Billal DS, Feng J, Leprohon P, et al. Whole Genome Analysis of Linezolid Resistance in Streptococcus Pneumoniae Reveals Resistance and Compensatory Mutations. BMC Genomics. 2011; 12(1): 512p.
18. Gao W. et al. Two Novel Point Mutations in Clinical Staphylococcus aureus Reduce Linezolid Susceptibility and Switch on the Stringent Response to Promote Persistent Infection. PLoS Pathog. 2010; 6(6): e1000944p.
19. Leclercq R. Mechanisms of Resistance to Macrolides and Lincosamides: Nature of the Resistance Elements and Their Clinical Implications. Clin Infect Dis. 2002; 34(4): 482–492p.
20. Kumar N, et al. Crystal Structure of the Transcriptional Regulator Rv1219c of Mycobacterium Tuberculosis. Protein Sci. 2014; 23(4): 423–432p.
21. Vetting MW, et al. Structure of QnrB1, a Plasmidmediated Fluoroquinolone Resistance Factor. J Biol Chem. 2011; 286(28): 25265–25273p.
22. Randall CP, Mariner KR, Chopra I, O’Neill AJ. The Target of Daptomycin is Absent from Escherichia coli and Other Gram-Negative Pathogens. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013; 57(1): 637–639p.
23. Blake KL, O’Neill AJ. Transposon Library Screening for Identification of Genetic Loci Participating in Intrinsic Susceptibility and Acquired Resistance to Anti-Staphylococcal Agents. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2013; 68(1): 12–16p.
24. Livermore DM. Defining an Extended-Spectrum Betalactamase. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2008; 14(Suppl. 1): 3–10p.
25. Nordmann P, Poirel L, Walsh TR, Livermore DM. The Emerging NDM Carbapenemases. Trends Microbiol. 2011; 19(12): 588–595p.
26. Voulgari E, Poulou A, Koumaki V, Tsakris A. Carbapenemase-Producing Enterobacteriaceae: Now that the Storm is Finally Here, How will Timely Detection Help Us Fight Back? Future Microbiol. 2013; 8(1): 27–39p.
27. Johnson AP, Woodford N. Global Spread of Antibiotic Resistance: The Example of New Delhi Metallo-β-Lactamase (NDM)-Mediated Carbapenem Resistance. J Med Microbiol. 2013; 62(Pt 4): 499–513p.
28. Lynch III, JP Clark NM, Zhanel GG. Evolution of antimicrobial resistance among Enterobacteriaceae (focus on extended spectrum β-lactamases and carbapenemases). Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy. 2013;14(2),199–210p.
29. Wright GD. Bacterial Resistance to Antibiotics: Enzymatic Degradation and Modification. Adv Drug Delivery Rev. 2005; 57(10): 1451–1470p.
30. Norris AL, Serpersu EH. Ligand Promiscuity through the Eyes of the Aminoglycoside N3 acetyltransferaseiia. Protein Sci. 2013; 22(7): 916–928p.
31. Levy SB, Marshall B. Antibacterial Resistance Worldwide: Causes, Challenges and Responses. Nat Med. 2004; 10(Suppl. 12): S122–S129p.
32. Jones M, Karlowsky J, Draghi D, Thornsberry C, Sahm D, Nathwani D. Epidemiology and Antibiotic Susceptibility of Bacteria Causing Skin and Soft Tissue Infections in the USA and Europe: A Guide to Appropriate Antimicrobial Therapy. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2003; 22(4): 406–419p.
33. Jones M, Draghi D, Thornsberry C, Karlowsky J, Sahm D, Wenzel R. Emerging Resistance among Bacterial Pathogens in the Intensive Care Unit. A European and North American Surveillance Study (2000–2002). Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob. 2004; 3: 14p.
34. Panlilio A, Culver D, Gaynes R et al. Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in US Hospitals, 1975–1991. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1992; 13(10): 582–586p.
35. Oliveira D, Tomasz A, de Lencastre H. Secrets of Success of a Human Pathogen: Molecular Evolution of Pandemic Clones of Meticillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Lancet Infect Dis. 2002; 2(3): 180–189p.
36. Stefani S, Varaldo P. Epidemiology of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococci in Italy. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2003; 9(12): 1179–1186p.
37. Zhang H, Hackbarth C, Chansky K, Chambers H. A Proteolytic Transmembrane Signaling Pathway and Resistance to -Lactams in Staphylococci. Science. 2001; 291(5510): 1962–1965p.
38. Pinho M, Filipe S, de Lencastre H, Tomasz A. Complementation of the Essential Peptidoglycan Transpeptidase Function of Penicillin-Binding Protein 2 (PBP2) by the Drug Resistance Protein PBP2A in Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol. 2001; 183(22): 6525–6531p.
39. Pinho MG, de Lencastre H, Tomasz A. An Acquired and a Native Penicillin-Binding Protein Cooperate in Building the Cell Wall of Drug-Resistant Staphylococci. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2001; 98(19): 10886–10891p.

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Regular Issue Open Access Article

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Research & Reviews: A Journal of Microbiology & Virology

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[if 344 not_equal=””]ISSN: 2230-9853[/if 344]

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Volume 11
Issue 1
Received November 17, 2020
Accepted November 19, 2020
Published April 19, 2021

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Views: 1,313

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