Host Invasion to Immune Evasion: Emerging Concepts in Pathogen Virulence Strategies

Notice

This is an unedited manuscript accepted for publication and provided as an Article in Press for early access at the author’s request. The article will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and galley proof review before final publication. Please be aware that errors may be identified during production that could affect the content. All legal disclaimers of the journal apply.

Year : 2025 | Volume : 02 | 02 | Page :
    By

    Alisha Arzoo,

  1. Researcher, Medical Virology, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India

Abstract

Pathogens have evolved a wide repertoire of virulence strategies that allow them to invade host tissues, establish infection, and circumvent immune responses. From the initial steps of adhesion and colonization to complex molecular mimicry, antigenic variation, and immunomodulation, pathogens display remarkable adaptability. While traditional research has emphasized host cell entry and toxin production, emerging evidence highlights subtler and more dynamic strategies such as manipulation of host signaling pathways, subversion of phagocytosis, and exploitation of the microbiome. Viral, bacterial, fungal, and parasitic pathogens each deploy unique yet overlapping tactics, often orchestrated through genetic plasticity, secretion systems, and regulatory networks. Understanding these mechanisms is critical in an era marked by rising antimicrobial resistance, zoonotic spillovers, and pandemics. This review synthesizes current knowledge on pathogen virulence from invasion to immune evasion, integrating classical concepts with cutting-edge insights from molecular biology, genomics, and immunology. By examining diverse pathogens from Staphylococcus aureus and Mycobacterium tuberculosis to influenza virus and Plasmodium falciparum we highlight shared evolutionary pressures and unique survival tactics. The article concludes by discussing implications for vaccine development, therapeutic targeting, and future research directions, underscoring the urgent need to translate mechanistic insights into clinical and public health interventions.

Keywords: Host–pathogen interaction, Virulence factors, Immune evasion, Microbial pathogenesis, Emerging infectious diseases

How to cite this article:
Alisha Arzoo. Host Invasion to Immune Evasion: Emerging Concepts in Pathogen Virulence Strategies. International Journal of Pathogens. 2025; 02(02):-.
How to cite this URL:
Alisha Arzoo. Host Invasion to Immune Evasion: Emerging Concepts in Pathogen Virulence Strategies. International Journal of Pathogens. 2025; 02(02):-. Available from: https://journals.stmjournals.com/ijpg/article=2025/view=230583


References

  1. Casadevall A, Pirofski LA. Host-pathogen interactions: redefining the basic concepts of virulence and pathogenicity. Infection and immunity. 1999 Aug 1;67(8):3703-13.
  2. Finlay BB, McFadden G. Anti-immunology: evasion of the host immune system by bacterial and viral pathogens. Cell. 2006 Feb 24;124(4):767-82.
  3. Wiles TJ, Kulesus RR, Mulvey MA. Origins and virulence mechanisms of uropathogenic Escherichia coli. Experimental and molecular pathology. 2008 Aug 1;85(1):11-9.
  4. Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Schroeder S, Krüger N, Herrler T, Erichsen S, Schiergens TS, Herrler G, Wu NH, Nitsche A, Müller MA. SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor. cell. 2020 Apr 16;181(2):271-80.
  5. Naglik J, Albrecht A, Bader O, Hube B. Candida albicans proteinases and host/pathogen interactions. Cellular microbiology. 2004 Oct;6(10):915-26.
  6. Pizarro-Cerdá J, Cossart P. Bacterial adhesion and entry into host cells. Cell. 2006 Feb 24;124(4):715-27.
  7. Sheldon JR, Heinrichs DE. Recent developments in understanding the iron acquisition strategies of gram positive pathogens. FEMS microbiology reviews. 2015 Jul 1;39(4):592-630.
  8. Ng VH, Cox JS, Sousa AO, MacMicking JD, McKinney JD. Role of KatG catalase‐peroxidase in mycobacterial pathogenesis: countering the phagocyte oxidative burst. Molecular microbiology. 2004 Jun;52(5):1291-302.
  9. Ryder C, Byrd M, Wozniak DJ. Role of polysaccharides in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm development. Current opinion in microbiology. 2007 Dec 1;10(6):644-8.
  10. Horn D. Antigenic variation in African trypanosomes. Mol Biochem Parasitol. 2014;195(2):123-9.
  11. Monteiro MA, Chan KH, Rasko DA, Taylor DE, Zheng PY, Appelmelk BJ, Wirth HP, Yang M, Blaser MJ, Hynes SO, Moran AP. Simultaneous Expression of Type 1 and Type 2 Lewis Blood Group Antigens by Helicobacter pyloriLipopolysaccharides: MOLECULAR MIMICRY BETWEEN H. PYLORILIPOPOLYSACCHARIDES AND HUMAN GASTRIC EPITHELIAL CELL SURFACE GLYCOFORMS. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1998 May 8;273(19):11533-43.
  12. Hansen TH, Bouvier M. MHC class I antigen presentation: learning from viral evasion strategies. Nature Reviews Immunology. 2009 Jul;9(7):503-13.
  13. Cornelis GR. The Yersinia Ysc–Yop’type III’weaponry. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology. 2002 Oct;3(10):742-53.
  14. Hilbi H, Moss JE, Hersh D, Chen Y, Arondel J, Banerjee S, Flavell RA, Yuan J, Sansonetti PJ, Zychlinsky A. Shigella-induced apoptosis is dependent on caspase-1 which binds to IpaB. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1998 Dec 4;273(49):32895-900.
  15. Patel JC, Galán JE. Manipulation of the host actin cytoskeleton by Salmonella—all in the name of entry. Current opinion in microbiology. 2005 Feb 1;8(1):10-5.
Ahead of Print Subscription Review Article
Volume 02
02
Received 14/10/2025
Accepted 01/11/2025
Published 05/11/2025
Publication Time 22 Days
178

Login


My IP

PlumX Metrics