Monkeypox Virus (MPXV): Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Control Strategies: Exploring the Recent Resurgence of Monkeypox, Its Transmission Dynamics, Clinical Manifestations, and Public Health Responses


Notice

This is an unedited manuscript accepted for publication and provided as an Article in Press for early access at the author’s request. The article will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and galley proof review before final publication. Please be aware that errors may be identified during production that could affect the content. All legal disclaimers of the journal apply.

Year : 2025 | Volume : 02 | 01 | Page : –
    By

    Tahseen Khan,

  1. Researcher, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Center for Biomedical Research (ACBR),University of Delhi, New Delhi-110007, India

Abstract

document.addEventListener(‘DOMContentLoaded’,function(){frmFrontForm.scrollToID(‘frm_container_abs_177611’);});Edit Abstract & Keyword

Monkeypox virus (MPXV) has re-emerged as a significant public health concern, with increasing cases reported worldwide. This zoonotic virus, primarily endemic to Central and West Africa, has demonstrated the potential for human-to-human transmission, leading to outbreaks in non-endemic regions. Unlike smallpox, which was eradicated through mass vaccination, monkeypox continues to persist due to the lack of widespread immunity and effective antiviral treatments. The resurgence of MPXV in recent years, particularly in non-endemic regions, underscores the urgent need for improved surveillance, vaccination strategies, and public health interventions. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the epidemiology, pathogenesis, transmission dynamics, clinical manifestations, and public health responses associated with monkeypox. The epidemiology of MPXV highlights the virus’s expanding geographical distribution, with increased outbreaks reported across continents due to global travel and environmental changes. The pathogenesis of MPXV is explored, focusing on its mechanisms of infection, immune evasion strategies, and the host immune response. Clinical manifestations vary from mild to severe, with complications such as secondary infections, pneumonia, encephalitis, and ocular involvement in some cases. Furthermore, this review examines transmission dynamics, including zoonotic spillover, human-to- human transmission, and environmental persistence. Public health responses, including vaccination campaigns, treatment protocols, and community awareness programs, play a crucial role in controlling outbreaks. Although vaccines such as JYNNEOS and ACAM2000 offer protection, challenges remain regarding vaccine accessibility and public acceptance. The role of antiviral treatments such as Tecovirimat (TPOXX) is also discussed, emphasizing the need for further clinical research. Finally, the review highlights future challenges, including the potential for viral mutations, disparities in healthcare infrastructure, and the need for global cooperation in combating MPXV. By understanding the epidemiology, pathogenesis, and transmission dynamics of monkeypox, this review aims to provide insights into effective control measures and preparedness strategies for future outbreaks. Strengthening surveillance, investing in research, and enhancing global collaboration will be key to mitigating the impact of MPXV in the years to come.

Keywords: Zoonotic, Antiviral, Surveillance, Immune, Accessibility.

How to cite this article:
Tahseen Khan. Monkeypox Virus (MPXV): Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Control Strategies: Exploring the Recent Resurgence of Monkeypox, Its Transmission Dynamics, Clinical Manifestations, and Public Health Responses. International Journal of Virus Studies. 2025; 02(01):-.
How to cite this URL:
Tahseen Khan. Monkeypox Virus (MPXV): Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Control Strategies: Exploring the Recent Resurgence of Monkeypox, Its Transmission Dynamics, Clinical Manifestations, and Public Health Responses. International Journal of Virus Studies. 2025; 02(01):-. Available from: https://journals.stmjournals.com/ijvs/article=2025/view=0


document.addEventListener(‘DOMContentLoaded’,function(){frmFrontForm.scrollToID(‘frm_container_ref_177611’);});Edit

References

  1. McCollum AM, Damon IK. Human monkeypox. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58(2):260-7.
  2. Bunge EM, Hoet B, Chen L, Lienert F, Weidenthaler H, Baer LR, et al. The changing epidemiology of human monkeypox—A potential threat? A systematic review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2022;16(2):e0010141.
  3. Petersen E, Kantele A, Koopmans M, Asogun D, Yinka-Ogunleye A, Ihekweazu C, et al. Human monkeypox: epidemiologic and clinical characteristics, diagnosis, and prevention. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2019;33(4):1027-43.
  4. Sklenovská N, Van Ranst M. Emergence of monkeypox as the most important orthopoxvirus infection in humans. Front Public Health. 2018;6:241.
  5. Vaughan A, Aarons E, Astbury J, Brooks T, Chand M, Flegg P, et al. Two cases of monkeypox imported to the United Kingdom, September 2018. Euro Surveill. 2018;23(38):1800509.
  6. Adler H, Gould S, Hine P, Snell LB, Wong W, Houlihan CF, et al. Clinical features and management of human monkeypox: a retrospective observational study in the UK. Lancet Infect Dis. 2022;22(8):1153-62.
  7. Magnus PV, Andersen EK, Petersen KB, Birch-Andersen A. A pox-like disease in Cynomolgus monkeys. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand. 1959;46(2):156-76.
  8. Yinka-Ogunleye A, Aruna O, Dalhat M, Ogoina D, McCollum A, Disu Y, et al. Outbreak of human monkeypox in Nigeria in 2017-18: A clinical and epidemiological report. Lancet Infect Dis. 2019;19(8):872-9.
  9. Mauldin MR, McCollum AM, Nakazawa Y, Mandra A, Whitehouse ER, Davidson W, et al. Exportation of monkeypox virus from the African continent. J Infect Dis. 2022;225(8):1367-76.
  10. Thornhill JP, Barkati S, Walmsley S, Rockstroh J, Antinori A, Harrison LB, et al. Monkeypox virus infection in humans across 16 countries—April–June 2022. N Engl J Med. 2022;387(8):679-91.
  11. Di Giulio DB, Eckburg PB. Human monkeypox: an emerging zoonosis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2004;4(1):15-25.
  12. Fine PE, Jezek Z, Grab B, Dixon H. The transmission potential of monkeypox virus in human populations. Int J Epidemiol. 1988;17(3):643-50.
  13. Reynolds MG, Davidson WB, Curns AT, Conover CS, Huhn G, Davis JP, et al. Spectrum of infection and risk factors for human monkeypox, United States, 2003. Emerg Infect Dis. 2007;13(9):1332-9.
  14. Rao AK, Petersen BW, Whitehill F, Razeq JH, Isaacs SN, Merchlinsky MJ, et al. Use of JYNNEOS (Smallpox and Monkeypox Vaccine, Live, Non-replicating) for primary and postexposure vaccination of persons at risk for occupational exposure to orthopoxviruses. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022;71(22):734-42.
  15. Hutson CL, Carroll DS, Gallardo-Romero N, Weiss S, Clemmons C, Hughes CM, et al. Monkeypox disease transmission in an experimental setting: Prairie dog animal model. PLoS One. 2011;6(12):e28295
Ahead of Print Subscription Review Article
Volume 02
01
Received 28/02/2025
Accepted 07/03/2025
Published 11/03/2025
Publication Time 11 Days
65

async function fetchCitationCount(doi) {
let apiUrl = `https://api.crossref.org/works/${doi}`;
try {
let response = await fetch(apiUrl);
let data = await response.json();
let citationCount = data.message[“is-referenced-by-count”];
document.getElementById(“citation-count”).innerText = `Citations: ${citationCount}`;
} catch (error) {
console.error(“Error fetching citation count:”, error);
document.getElementById(“citation-count”).innerText = “Citations: Data unavailable”;
}
}
fetchCitationCount(“10.37591/IJVS.v02i01.0”);

Loading citations…