Vaccines Through Time: Conventional Foundations and Next-Gen Innovations–Part 1

Year : 2026 | Volume : 16 | 01 | Page :
    By

    Maitry Goel,

  1. Student, Department of Biotechnology, Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, Noida,, Uttar Pradesh, India

Abstract

Vaccination serves as a critical pillar of global public health, markedly decreasing infection rates and associated mortality. Traditional vaccine platforms such as live attenuated, inactivated, toxoid, and subunit vaccines have demonstrated effectiveness against pathogens like Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Plasmodium spp., yet they are constrained by antigenic variability, limited immune persistence, and complex production processes. Breakthroughs in synthetic biology, structural antigen design, and computational vaccinology have driven the development of advanced vaccine technologies, including mRNA-based vaccines, viral vectors, virus-like particles, and nanoparticle-based systems. These modern platforms enable precise antigen presentation, faster manufacturing, and broader protection against diverse and emerging variants. The mode of vaccine administration whether intramuscular, oral, intranasal, or transdermal also plays a pivotal role in shaping immune outcomes, influencing the magnitude, site-specificity, and duration of the response. Aligning delivery routes with innovative vaccine platforms has shown improved efficacy, particularly in enhancing mucosal immunity. Moreover, vaccination contributes to reducing antimicrobial resistance by lowering infection rates and minimizing antibiotic use. Innovations such as AI-assisted antigen prediction and self-replicating RNA platforms further expand the potential for long-lasting, cross-protective immunity. Despite these advancements, persistent challenges including reliance on cold-chain logistics, inequitable distribution, and public hesitancy remain significant. Future directions should focus on mucosal-targeted delivery, universal vaccine approaches, and decentralized distribution models to strengthen global health systems and pandemic readiness

Keywords: Synthetic biology, structural vaccinology, immunoinformatics, vaccine delivery routes, mucosal immunity, antimicrobial resistance, AI-assisted antigen design

How to cite this article:
Maitry Goel. Vaccines Through Time: Conventional Foundations and Next-Gen Innovations–Part 1. Research and Reviews: A Journal of Microbiology and Virology. 2026; 16(01):-.
How to cite this URL:
Maitry Goel. Vaccines Through Time: Conventional Foundations and Next-Gen Innovations–Part 1. Research and Reviews: A Journal of Microbiology and Virology. 2026; 16(01):-. Available from: https://journals.stmjournals.com/rrjomv/article=2026/view=238849


References

  1. Salalli R, Dange JR, Dhiman S, Sharma T. Vaccines development in India: Advances, regulation, and challenges. Clin Exp Vaccine Res. 2023 Jul;12(3):193–208. doi: 10.7774/cevr.2023.12.3.193.
  2. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Vaccines and immunization. NCBI Bookshelf. Bethesda (MD): National Library of Medicine; 2025. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459331/. Accessed 2025 May 9.
  3. Vaccines in India – pharmaceuticals industry. Statista; 2025. Available from: https://www.statista.com/outlook/hmo/pharmaceuticals/vaccines/india?currency=USD. Accessed 2025 Apr 14.
  4. Kalia M, Sharma M, Rohilla R, Rana K. Trend of immunization and gap in vaccine doses as observed in National Family Health Survey rounds in India. Indian J Med Res. 2024 Sep–Oct;160(3–4):303–11. doi: 10.25259/ijmr_1770_23.
  5. Nandi A, Shet A. Why vaccines matter: understanding the broader health, economic, and child development benefits of routine vaccination. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2020;16:1900–4. doi: 10.1080/21645515.2019.1708669.
  6. Wagstaff A, Flores G, Smitz MF, Hsu J, Chepynoga K, Eozenou P, et al. Progress on impoverishing health spending in 122 countries: A retrospective observational study. Lancet Glob Health. 2018;6:e180–92. doi:10.1016/S2214-109X(17)30486-2.
  7. Doherty M, Buchy P, Standaert B, Giaquinto C, Prado-Cohrs D. Vaccine impact: Benefits for human health. Vaccine. 2016;34:6707–14. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.10.025.
  8. World Bank. World development indicators. Washington (DC): World Bank; 2017. Available from: https://datatopics.worldbank.org/world-development-indicators/. Accessed 2022 Sep 20.
  9. Hooda SK. Out-of-pocket payments for healthcare in India: Who have affected the most and why? J Health Manag. 2017;19:1–15.
  10. World Health Organization. Tracking universal health coverage: 2021 global monitoring report. Geneva: WHO; 2021.
  11. Bloom DE, Kuhn M, Prettner K. Modern infectious diseases: Macroeconomic impacts and policy responses. J Econ Lit. 2022;60:85–131.
  12. Riumallo-Herl CJ, Chang AY, Clark S, Constenla D, Clark A, Brenzel L, et al. Poverty reduction and equity benefits of introducing or scaling up measles, rotavirus and pneumococcal vaccines in low-income and middle-income countries: A modelling study. BMJ Glob Health. 2018;3:e000613.
  13. World Health Organization. Global equitable access to COVID-19 vaccines estimated to generate economic benefits of at least US$153 billion in 2020–21 and US$466 billion by 2025 in 10 major economies. Geneva: WHO; 2021. Available from: WHO reports. Accessed 2022 Sep 9.
  14. Mina MJ, Kula T, Leng Y, Li M, de Vries RD, Knip M, et al. Measles virus infection diminishes preexisting antibodies that offer protection from other pathogens. Science. 2019;366:599–606.
  15. -P. Michel and J. Goldberg, “Education, healthy aging and vaccine literacy,” The Journal of Nutrition, Health & Aging, vol. 25, no. 5, pp. 698–701, 2021, doi: 10.1007/s12603-021-1627 1.
  16. Summan A, Nandi A, Bloom DE. A shot at economic prosperity: Long-term effects of India’s childhood immunization program on earnings and consumption expenditure. Am J Health Econ. 2022;9(1).
  17. Galor O. The demographic transition: Causes and consequences. Cliometrica. 2012;6(1):1–28.
  18. Ager P, Hansen C, Jensen P. Fertility and early-life mortality: Evidence from smallpox vaccination in Sweden. J Eur Econ Assoc. 2018;16(2):487–521.
  19. Nandi SA, Ngô TD, Bloom DE. Childhood vaccinations and demographic transition: Long-term evidence from India. Bonn: Institute of Labor Economics (IZA); 2022. Discussion Paper No. 15245. Available from: https://www.iza.org/publications/dp/15245.
  20. Hasija V, Patial S, Raizada P, Thakur S, Singh P, Hussain CM. The environmental impact of mass coronavirus vaccinations: A point of view on huge COVID-19 vaccine waste across the globe during ongoing vaccine campaigns. Sci Total Environ. 2022;813:151881. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151881.
  21. Bloom DE, Kuhn M, Prettner K. Modern infectious diseases: Macroeconomic impacts and policy responses. J Econ Lit. 2022;60:85–131.
  22. World Bank. The World Bank annual report 2022: Helping countries adapt to a changing world. Washington (DC): World Bank; 2022.
  23. Riumallo-Herl CJ, Chang AY, Clark S, Constenla D, Clark A, Brenzel L, et al. Poverty reduction and equity benefits of introducing or scaling up measles, rotavirus and pneumococcal vaccines in low-income and middle-income countries: A modelling study. BMJ Glob Health. 2018;3:e000613.
  24. World Health Organization. Global equitable access to COVID-19 vaccines estimated to generate economic benefits of at least US$153 billion in 2020–21 and US$466 billion by 2025 in 10 major economies. Geneva: WHO; 2021. Available from: https://www.who.int/news/item/22-07-2021-global-equitable-access-to-covid-19-vaccines-estimated-to-generate-economic-benefits-of-at-least-usd-153-billion-in-2020-21-and-usd-466-billion-by-2025. Accessed 2022 Sep 9.
  25. Baker RE, Mahmud AS, Miller IF, Rajeev M, Rasambainarivo F, Rice BL, et al. Infectious disease in an era of global change. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2022;20:193–205.
  26. Mora C, McKenzie T, Gaw IM, Dean JM, von Hammerstein H, Knudson TA, et al. Over half of known human pathogenic diseases can be aggravated by climate change. Nat Clim Change. 2022;12:869–75.
  27. Carlson CJ, Albery GF, Merow C, Trisos CH, Zipfel CM, Eskew EA, et al. Climate change increases cross-species viral transmission risk. Nature. 2022;607:555–62.
  28. Ryan SJ, Carlson CJ, Mordecai EA, Johnson LR. Global expansion and redistribution of Aedes-borne virus transmission risk with climate change. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2019;13:e0007213.
  29. Leroux-Roels I, Borkowski A, Vanwolleghem T, Dramé M, Clement F, Hons E, et al. Antigen sparing and cross-reactive immunity with an adjuvanted rH5N1 prototype pandemic influenza vaccine: A randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2007;370:580–9.
  30. Pollard AJ, Bijker EM. A guide to vaccinology: From basic principles to new developments. Nat Rev Immunol. 2021;21(2):83–100. doi: 10.1038/s41577-020-00479-7.
  31. Hoelzer K, Bielke L, Blake DP, Cox E, Cutting SM, Devriendt B, et al. Vaccines as alternatives to antibiotics for food-producing animals. Part 1: Challenges and needs. Vet Res. 2018;49(1):64. doi: 10.1186/s13567-018-0560-8.
  32. Cox JA, Vlieghe E, Mendelson M, Wertheim H, Ndegwa L, Villegas MV, et al. Antibiotic stewardship in low- and middle-income countries: The same but different? Clin Microbiol Infect. 2017;23(11):812–8. doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2017.07.010.
  33. Wang LM, Cravo Oliveira Hashiguchi T, Cecchini M. Impact of vaccination on carriage of and infection by antibiotic-resistant bacteria: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Exp Vaccine Res. 2021;10(2):81–92. doi: 10.7774/cevr.2021.10.2.81.
  34. Kwon JH, Powderly WG. The post-antibiotic era is here. Science. 2021;373(6554):471. doi: 10.1126/science.abl5997.
  35. Coates AR, Halls G, Hu Y. Novel classes of antibiotics or more of the same? Br J Pharmacol. 2011;163(1):184–94. doi: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01250.x.
  36. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. The 17 goals. New York: United Nations; 2023. Available from: https://sdgs.un.org/goals. Accessed 2023 Jan 23.
  37. World Health Organization. Immunization agenda 2030. Geneva: WHO; 2022. Available from: https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/immunization/strategy/ia2030/ia2030-document-en.pdf. Accessed 2022 Sep 14.
  38. World Health Organization. World health statistics 2017: monitoring health for the SDGs. Geneva: WHO; 2017. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241565486. Accessed 2022 Sep 14.
  39. Fartash M, Khayatian M, Ghorbani A, Sadabadi A. Interpretive structural analysis of interrelationships of the sustainable development goals (SDGs) in Iran. Int J Sustain Dev Plann. 2021;16:155–63.
  40. Decouttere C, De Boeck K, Vandaele N. Advancing sustainable development goals through immunization: A literature review. Glob Health. 2021;17:95. doi: 10.1186/s12992-021-00730-4.
  41. Ghattas M, Dwivedi G, Lavertu M, Alameh MG. Vaccine technologies and platforms for infectious diseases: Current progress, challenges, and opportunities. Vaccines (Basel). 2021 Dec;9(12):1490. doi:10.3390/vaccines9121490.
  42. Vignuzzi M, Wendt E, Andino R. Engineering attenuated virus vaccines by controlling replication fidelity. Nat Med. 2008;14:154–61.
  43. Sanders B, Koldijk M, Schuitemaker H. Inactivated viral vaccines. In: Vaccine analysis: strategies, principles, and control. Berlin: Springer; 2015. p. 45–80. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-45024-6_2.
  44. Hotez PJ, Bottazzi ME. Whole inactivated virus and protein-based COVID-19 vaccines. Annu Rev Med. 2022;73(1):55–64. doi: 10.1146/annurev-med-042420-113212.
  45. Chen J, Wang J, Zhang J, Ly H. Advances in development and application of influenza vaccines. Front Immunol. 2021;12:711997. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.711997.
  46. Clem AS. Fundamentals of vaccine immunology. J Glob Infect Dis. 2011 Jan;3(1):73–8. doi:10.4103/0974-777X.77299.
  47. World Health Organization. Inactivated whole-cell (killed antigen) vaccines. WHO Vaccine Safety Basics. Available from: https://vaccine-safety-training.org. Accessed 2021 Nov 11.
  48. Paliwal R, London E. Comparison of the conformation, hydrophobicity, and model membrane interactions of diphtheria toxin to those of formaldehyde-treated toxin (diphtheria toxoid): formaldehyde stabilization of the native conformation inhibits changes that allow membrane insertion. Biochemistry. 1996;35:2374–9.
  49. World Health Organization. Module 2: subunit vaccines. WHO Vaccine Safety Basics e-learning course. Available from: https://vaccine-safety-training.org. Accessed 2021 Aug 8.
  50. Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance. What are protein subunit vaccines and how could they be used against COVID-19? Available from: https://www.gavi.org. Accessed 2021 Aug 17.
  51. Francis MJ. Recent advances in vaccine technologies. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 2018;48(2):231–41. doi: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2017.10.002.
  52. Lidder P, Sonnino A. Biotechnologies for the management of genetic resources for food and agriculture. Adv Genet. 2012;78:1–167. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-394394-1.00001-8.
  53. S. Food and Drug Administration. Gardasil 9 (human papillomavirus 9-valent vaccine, recombinant). Silver Spring (MD): FDA; 2023. Available from: https://www.fda.gov. Accessed 2023 Apr 2.
  54. S. Food and Drug Administration. Flublok quadrivalent (influenza vaccine). Silver Spring (MD): FDA; 2023. Available from: https://www.fda.gov. Accessed 2023 Apr 2.
  55. S. Food and Drug Administration. Shingrix (zoster vaccine recombinant, adjuvanted). Silver Spring (MD): FDA; 2023. Available from: https://www.fda.gov. Accessed 2023 Apr 2.
  56. European Medicines Agency. Nuvaxovid dispersion for injection: COVID-19 vaccine (recombinant, adjuvanted). Amsterdam: EMA; 2022. Available from: Official regulatory documents. Accessed 2023 Apr 2.
  57. Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P. Molecular biology of the cell: The shape and structure of proteins. New York: Garland Science; 2002.
  58. Stoker HS. General, organic, and biological chemistry. 7th ed. Boston (MA): Cengage Learning; 2015. p. 709–10.
  59. Smith MB. Biochemistry: an organic chemistry approach. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press; 2020. p. 269–70.
  60. Vijayan M, Yathindra N, Kolaskar AS. Multi-protein assemblies with point group symmetry. In: Vijayan M, Yathindra N, Kolaskar AS, editors. Perspectives in structural biology: A volume in honour of G.N. Ramachandran. Hyderabad: Universities Press; 1999. p. 449–66.
  61. Plummer M, Manchester M. Viral nanoparticles and virus-like particles: Platforms for contemporary vaccine design. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Nanomed Nanobiotechnol. 2011;3(2):174–96. doi: 10.1002/wnan.119.
  62. Wang M, Jiang S, Wang Y. Recent advances in the production of recombinant subunit vaccines in Pichia pastoris. Bioengineered. 2016 Apr;7(3):155–65. doi: 10.1080/21655979.2016.1191707.
  63. Bill RM. Recombinant protein subunit vaccine synthesis in microbes: A role for yeast? J Pharm Pharmacol. 2015 Mar;67(3):319–28. doi: 10.1111/jphp.12353.
  64. Hotez PJ, Bottazzi ME. Whole inactivated virus and protein-based COVID-19 vaccines. Annu Rev Med. 2022 Jan;73(1):55–64. doi:10.1146/annurev-med-042420-113212.
  65. Decker M. Vaccines. Immunology Course 419. Tucson (AZ): Department of Veterinary Science and Microbiology, University of Arizona; 2003.
  66. Bayani N, Hashkavaei S, Arjmand S, Rezaei S, Uskoković V, Alijanianzadeh M, et al. An overview of the vaccine platforms to combat COVID-19 with a focus on the subunit vaccines. Prog Biophys Mol Biol. 2023 Mar;178:32–49. doi: 10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2023.02.004.
  67. Raffatellu M, Chessa D, Wilson RP, Dusold R, Rubino S, Bäumler AJ. The Vi capsular antigen of Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi reduces Toll-like receptor-dependent interleukin-8 expression in the intestinal mucosa. Infect Immun. 2005 Jun;73(6):3367–74. doi: 10.1128/IAI.73.6.3367-3374.2005.
  68. Hu X, Chen Z, Xiong K, Wang J, Rao X, Cong Y. Vi capsular polysaccharide: Synthesis, virulence, and application. Crit Rev Microbiol. 2017 Aug;43(4):440–52. doi:10.1080/1040841X.2016.1249335.
  69. Lin FY, Ho VA, Khiem HB, Trach DD, Bay PV, Thanh TC, et al. The efficacy of a Salmonella typhi Vi conjugate vaccine in two-to-five-year-old children. N Engl J Med. 2001 Apr;344(17):1263–9.
  70. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. Vaccine types. Bethesda (MD): NIAID; 2022. Available from: https://www.niaid.nih.gov/research/vaccine-types. Accessed 2022 Apr 15.
  71. Pollard AJ. Types of vaccine. Oxford: Oxford Vaccine Group, University of Oxford; 2020. Available from: https://www.ovg.ox.ac.uk/news/types-of-vaccine. Accessed 2023 Jan 12.
  72. Concha C, Cañas R, Macuer J, Torres MJ, Herrada AA, Jamett F, et al. Disease prevention: An opportunity to expand edible plant-based vaccines? Vaccines (Basel). 2017 May;5(2):14. doi: 10.3390/vaccines5020014.
  73. Arntzen CJ. Edible vaccines. Public Health Rep. 1997;112(3):190–7.
  74. Mor TS, Gomez-Lim MA, Palmer KE. Edible vaccines: A concept comes of age. Trends Microbiol. 1998;6:449–53. doi: 10.1016/S0966-842X(98)01357-2.
  75. Mason HS, Lam DMK, Arntzen CJ. Expression of hepatitis B surface antigen in transgenic plants. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1992;89:11745–9. doi: 10.1073/pnas.89.24.11745.
  76. Richter LJ, Thanavala Y, Arntzen CJ, Mason HS. Production of hepatitis B surface antigen in transgenic plants for oral immunization. Nat Biotechnol. 2000;18(11):1167–71. doi: 10.1038/81153.
  77. Mor TS, Richter L, Mason HS. Expression of rotavirus proteins in transgenic plants. In: Altman A, Ziv M, Izhar S, editors. Plant biotechnology and in vitro biology in the 21st century. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers; 1999. p. 521–4.
  78. Kurup VM, Thomas J. Edible vaccines: promises and challenges. Mol Biotechnol. 2020 Feb;62(2):79–90. doi: 10.1007/s12033-019-00222-1.
  79. Qin F, Xia F, Chen H, Cui B, Feng Y, Zhang P, et al. A guide to nucleic acid vaccines in the prevention and treatment of infectious diseases and cancers: from basic principles to current applications. Front Cell Dev Biol. 2021 May;9:633776. doi: 10.3389/fcell.2021.633776.
  80. Schmidt C, Schnierle BS. Self-amplifying RNA vaccine candidates: Alternative platforms for mRNA vaccine development. Pathogens. 2023 Jan;12(1):138. doi: 10.3390/pathogens12010138.
  81. Sasso A, D’Alise AM, Zambrano N, Scarselli E, Folgori A, Nicosia A. New viral vectors for infectious diseases and cancer. Semin Immunol. 2020;50:101430. doi: 10.1016/j.smim.2020.101430. PMID:33262065.
  82. Diaz-Arévalo D, Zeng M. Nanoparticle-based vaccines: Opportunities and limitations. In: Nanopharmaceuticals. 2020. p. 135–150. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-817778-5.00007-5.
  83. Olawade DB, Teke J, Fapohunda O, Weerasinghe K, Usman SO, Ige AO, et al. Leveraging artificial intelligence in vaccine development: a narrative review. 2024;42(9):1157–1167. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2024.01.001.
  84. Sette A, Rappuoli R. Reverse vaccinology: developing vaccines in the era of genomics. 2010;33(4):530–541. doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2010.09.017. PMID:21029963; PMCID:PMC3320742.
  85. Imani S, Li X, Chen K, Maghsoudloo M, Kaboli PJ, Hashemi M, et al. Computational biology and artificial intelligence in mRNA vaccine design for cancer immunotherapy. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2025;14:1501010. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2024.1501010.
  86. Illumina. Available from: https://www.illumina.com/ [cited 2025 Apr 28].
  87. Oxford Nanopore Technologies. Nanopore Technologies. Available from: https://nanoporetech.com/ [cited 2025 Apr 28].
  88. Pacific Biosciences. Pacific Biosciences (PacBio). Available from: https://www.pacb.com/ [cited 2025 Apr 28].
  89. RNA-Seq Blog. Vax-Seq: mRNA vaccine quality analysis using RNA sequencing. RNA-Seq Blog. 2022. Available from: https://www.rna-seqblog.com/vax-seq-mrna-vaccine-quality-analysis-using-rna-sequencing/ [cited 2025 Apr 28].
  90. 10x Genomics. Visium spatial gene expression. 10x Genomics. Available from: https://www.10xgenomics.com/products/spatial-gene-expression [cited 2025 Apr 28].
  91. Ong E, Wang H, Wong MU, Seetharaman M, Valdez N, He Y. Vaxign-ML: supervised machine learning reverse vaccinology model for improved prediction of bacterial protective antigens. 2020;36(10):3185–3191. doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/btaa119.
  92. He Y, Xiang D, Narciandi O. Vaxign: the first web-based vaccine design program for reverse vaccinology and applications for vaccine development. J Immunol Res. 2010;2010:297505. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2010/297505 [cited 2025 Apr 28].
  93. Doytchinova IA, Flower DR. VaxiJen: a server for prediction of protective antigens, tumor antigens and subunit vaccines. BMC Bioinformatics. 2007;8:4. Available from: https://bmcbioinformatics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2105-8-4 [cited 2025 Apr 28].
  94. Ansari HR, Raghava GPS. VACSol: a high throughput in silico pipeline to predict vaccine candidates. BMC Bioinformatics. 2017;18:469. Available from: https://bmcbioinformatics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12859-017-1540-0 [cited 2025 Apr 28].
  95. NetMHC and BepiPred-2.0 services. Available from: https://services.healthtech.dtu.dk/services/BepiPred-2.0/ [cited 2025 Apr 28].
  96. Saha S, Raghava GPS. Prediction of continuous B-cell epitopes in an antigen using recurrent neural network. 2006;65(1):40–48. Available from: http://crdd.osdd.net/raghava/abcpred/ [cited 2025 Apr 28].
  97. SYFPEITHI: database for MHC ligands and peptide motifs. Available from: https://www.syfpeithi.de/ [cited 2025 Apr 28].
  98. Immune Epitope Database (IEDB). Available from: https://www.iedb.org/ [cited 2025 Apr 28].
  99. AlphaFold Protein Structure Database. Available from: https://alphafold.ebi.ac.uk/ [cited 2025 Apr 28].
  100. Institute for Protein Design. RosettaFold: accurate protein structure prediction accessible to all. 2021. Available from: https://www.ipd.uw.edu/2021/07/rosettafold-accurate-protein-structure-prediction-accessible-to-all/ [cited 2025 Apr 28].
  101. Rapin N, Lund O, Bernaschi M, Castiglione F. Computational immunology meets bioinformatics: the use of prediction tools for molecular binding in the simulation of the immune system. PLoS One. 2010;5(4):e9862. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009862.
  102. Grote A, Hiller K, Scheer M, Münch R, Jahn D. JCat: a novel tool to adapt codon usage of a target gene to its potential expression host. Nucleic Acids Res. 2005;33(Web Server issue):W526–W531. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1160137/ [cited 2025 Apr 28].
  103. AutoDock Vina. Available from: https://vina.scripps.edu/ [cited 2025 Apr 28].
  104. Available from: https://www.expasy.org/resources/swissdock [cited 2025 Apr 28].
  105. GROMACS molecular dynamics software. Available from: https://www.gromacs.org/ [cited 2025 Apr 28].
  106. AMBER molecular dynamics software. Available from: https://ambermd.org/ [cited 2025 Apr 28].
  107. Sharma A, et al. ADMETlab 2.0: an integrated online platform for accurate and comprehensive predictions of ADMET properties. Front Pharmacol. 2024;15. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38572755/ [cited 2025 Apr 28].
  108. Pires DEV, Blundell TL, Ascher DB. pkCSM: predicting small-molecule pharmacokinetic and toxicity properties using graph-based signatures. J Med Chem. 2015;58(9):4066–4072. Available from: https://biosig.lab.uq.edu.au/pkcsm/ [cited 2025 Apr 28].
  109. Conte N, Gulmini N, Costa F, et al. NERVE 2.0: boosting the new enhanced reverse vaccinology environment via artificial intelligence and a user-friendly web interface. BMC Bioinformatics. 2024;25:378. doi:10.1186/s12859-024-06004-0.
  110. Goel M., Gupta V. ““India’s Pioneering Advancements in Vaccinology: Challenges and Milestones.” Res Rev: J Microbiol Virol. 2026;16(2).
Ahead of Print Subscription Review Article
Volume 16
01
Received 31/12/2025
Accepted 19/01/2026
Published 20/01/2026
Publication Time 20 Days
24

Login


My IP

PlumX Metrics