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nThe effect of GPS-derived tropospheric delay on radio propagation oversome Nigerian stations is examined. The stations are located in the African equatorial region, and include: Abuja (8.9°N, 7.4°E), Akure (7.3°N, 5.2°E), Enugu (6.5°N, 7.5°E), Lagos (6.5°N, 3.4°E), and Port Harcourt (4.8°N, 7.0°E). This is the first study in the African equatorial region that uses in-situ meteorology measurements as well as GPS satellite measurements to present the impact of tropospheric delay on radio propagation, especially with respect to varying elevation angles. Data used for the study covered the twelve-month period from January to December 2013, and the modified Hopfield model was used to derive the tropospheric delays. The results show that GPS-derived tropospheric delays vary significantly with elevation angles of the satellites. The values of the tropospheric delays are typically about 2.5 m when the radio transmission path is at around 90° of elevation, and the values increase to over 20 m when the radio transmission is at around 10° of elevation. The rate of change of the tropospheric delay (with respect to elevation angle) increases with decreasing elevation angle. The tropospheric delay typically increases by about 3% when the elevation angle changes from 90° to 80°, and by about 60% when the elevation angle changes from 20° to 10°. Time-dependent maps of the tropospheric delay reveals a pattern which indicates that variation of the tropospheric delay is significantly controlled by elevation angles of the Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites.n

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3. A. Dheyaa, and H. Fayez, H. Estimation of Propagation Delays Induced in GPS Signals by some Atmospheric Constituents. IOSR Journal of Applied Physics: 2014; 5: 07-13
4. S. Katsougianapoulos.(2006 JANUARY 1) Tropospheric Refraction Estimation using various Models, Radiosode measurements and permanent GPS data. Researchgate[Online] Available from researchgate.net/publication/251893857_Tropospheric_Refraction_Estimation_Using_Various_Models_Radiosonde_Measurements_and_Permanent_GPS_Data 5. J. Saastamoinen. ‘‘Saastamoinen J. Atmospheric correction for troposphere and stratosphere in radio ranging of satellites. 3rd ed. Int Symp on the Use of Artificial Satellites for Geodesy. 01 January 1972 6. Saastamoinen J. Contributions to the theory of atmospheric refraction. Bulletin Géodésique (1946-1975).1972;105(1):279-298.
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8. J. Dodo, L. Ojidi & S. Tsebeje. Determination of the best fit Tropospheric delay model on the Nigerian Permanent GNSS network. Journal of Geosciences and Geomatics:2015; 3: 488-495.
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13. S. Shrestha. Investigation into the Estimation of Tropospheric delay and wet refractivity using GPS measurements. [GEOMATICS ENGINEERING]. [Calgary, Alberta, Canada]: UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY; July 2003.
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21. J.N. Nzeagwu, J.U. Urama, A. E. Chukwude et al. 2020 June. Program to compute Means of GPS derived tropospheric delay with respect to elevation angles of GPS Satellites. [online] Available from: https://zenodo.org/record/3886724
22. P.R. Rao, K. Niranjan, D. Prasad et al. On the validity of the ionospheric pierce point IPP altitude of350 km in the Indian equatorial and low‐latitude sector. Annales Geophysicae:2006; 24(8), 2159–2168.
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25. B. G Ayantunji, P. N. Okeke, and J.O.Urama. Diurnal and Seasonal Variation of Surface Refractivity over Nigeria. Progress In Electromagnetics Research B: 2011; 30; 201–222.
26. A. Li,L. Huang, and T. Zhang. Field test and analysis of microclimate in naturally ventilated single-sloped greenhouses. Energy and Buildings: 2017; 138 (1): 479-4892.
27. O. R.Salau. The changes in temperature and relative humidity in Lagos state, Nigeria. World Scientific News: 2016; 49 (2); 295-306.

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nThe glaciers are nature’s most valuable fresh water resource for irrigation, industry, and hydroelectric growth, as well as for the present and future needs of millions of people who live downstream. Numerous of the waterways in the HKH region receive a significant percentage of ice melt water from this solid reservoir. Many of the glaciers which consist of massive amount of permanent snow and ice are found to generate several glacial lakes. However, these glaciers are losing mass due to hasten global warming. Rapid water buildup in these glacial lakes, especially in those near retreating glaciers, can cause their vulnerable embankment “dams” to suddenly fail. Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOF) often result in massive flows of water and debris that have catastrophic downstream repercussions. Understanding of this resource seems an exceptional requirement for future planning for water resources and flood hazards. This paper provides comprehensive information about the glacial lakes in the different catchments of UIB and also provides information upon the distribution of glacial lakes and providing baseline data for further investigation of glacial lakes, GLOF hazards and risk assessment, and mitigation measures. This inventory of glacial lakes is prepared using reliable uniform and single source data with a semiautomatic method using RS/GIS. For the consistency of glacial lakes data, Satellite images obtained at same instant of time used to delineate glacial lakes boundary. The glacial lake boundaries were delineated using an automatic method on Landsat images from the year 2008 ± 2 years and also considering the data of 2015 + 2 years. The automatic method to delineate the glacial lake boundaries by defining the threshold condition of band ratio images made the process of mapping and monitoring of glacial lakes faster. It is challenging to apply the method as it is difficult to obtain good quality images with minimum amount of snow cover, cloud cover, and shadow portion so some of the lakes were manually digitized by validating on high resolution images in Google Earth as well as comparing with previous available inventory data. This inventory includes maximum numbers of lakes surrounding the glaciers.n

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4. Gardelle, J., Berthier, E., Arnaud, Y., and Kääb, A.: Region-wide glacier mass balances over the Pamir-Karakoram-Himalaya during 1999–2011, The Cryosphere, 7, 1263–1286, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-1263-2013, 2013.
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9. Ives, J.D., Shrestha, R.B. & Mool, P. K., (2010). Formation of Glacial Lakes in the Hindu-Kush Himalayas and GLOF Risk Assessment. Kathmandu: ICIMOD.
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nIn wireless communication the propagation channel is characterized by multipath propagation due to scattering on different obstacles. MIMO takes advantage of multi-path and uses multiple antennas to send multiple parallel signals from transmitter. “Multi-path” occurs when different signals arrive at the receiver at various times. MIMO exploits the space dimension to improve wireless systems capacity, range and reliability. There are two different modulation techniques that exploits the best features of MIMO communication and establish reliable wireless connection between MIMO transmitter and MIMO receiver. They are space shift keying (SSK) and quadrature phase shift keying (QSSK). Unlike other modulation techniques where symbols are transmitted, In SSK the antenna index relays information during transmission. This absence of symbol information eliminates the transceiver elements necessary for APM transmission and detection (such as coherent detectors). As well, the simplicity involved in modulation reduces the detection complexity compared to that of spatial modulation (SM), while achieving almost identical performance gains. In this paper, SSK is implemented for MIMO and also compared the results with QSSK under various conditions like increasing the number of transmitting antennas, increasing number of receiving antennas and proved the later has low probability of errorn

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1. A. Mokh, M. H´elard, M. Crussi`ere. “Extended receive antenna shift keying”. 2017 24th IEEE International Conference on Telecommunication (ICT). 3-5 May 2017; Limassol, Cyprus. US: IEEE Press; 2017.
2. Ertugrul Basar. “Spatial modulation techniques for 5G wireless networks May 2016, Conference: 2016 24th Signal processing and Communication Application Conference (SIU). 16-19 May 2016; Zonguldak, Turkey. US: IEEE Press; 2016.
3. R. Zhang, L.-L. Yang, L. Hanzo. “Generalised precoding aided spatial modulation”. IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications. 2013; 12(11): 5434– 5443.
4. Pritam Som, A. Chockalingam. “Spatial Modulation and Space Shift Keying in Single Carrier Communication”. 2012 IEEE 23rd International Symposium on Personal Indoor and Mobile Radio Communications (PIMRC). 9-12 September 2012; Sydney, NSW, Australia. US: IEEE Press; 2012.
5. Omar Hiari, Raed Mesleh, Abdullah Alkhatib. “A Physical Transmitter Implementation of a Quadrature Space Shift Keying MIMO System”. IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Express Briefs. January 2021; 68(1): 251 – 255.
6. L.-L. Yang. “Transmitter preprocessing aided spatial modulation for multiple-input multiple-output systems”. 2011 IEEE 73rd Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC Spring). 15-18 May, 2011; Budapest Hungary. US: IEEE Press; 2011. 1–5 p.
7. A. Mokh, Y. Kokar, M. H´elard, M. Crussi`ere. “Time reversal receive antenna shift keying on mimo los channel” 2017 International Conference on Sensors, Networks, Smart and Emerging Technologies (SENSET). 12-14 Sept. 2017; Beiriut, Lebanon. US: IEEE Press; 2017.
8. Y. Kokar, J.-C. Prevotet, M. Helard, “Receive antenna shift keying modulation testbed for wireless communications systems”. in Globecom Workshops (GCWorkshops). 4-8 December 2016; Washigton, DC, USA. US: IEEE Press; 2016. 1–6 p.
9. M. W. Numan, Mohammad Tariqul Islam, Norbahiah Misran, “An efficient FPGA-based hardware implementation of MIMO wireless systems” Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on Communication Systems Networks and Digital Signal Processing (CSNDSP). 21-23 July 2010; University of Northumbria, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK. US: IEEE Press 2010.
10. Jeyadeepan Jeganathan, Ali Ghrayeb, Leszek Szczecinski, Andres Ceron. “Space Shift Keying Modulation for MIMO Channels”. IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications. July 2009; 8(7): 3692-3703.

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nThe total solar irradiation at the top of the atmosphere is the primary forcing mechanism for the Earth’s Climate System. In this work, we used the addition of 10% in the radiation value (from 1360 Wm−2 to 1496 Wm−2) to simulate the Earth’s climate system in the habitable zone inner orbit. Two tenyear- long fully coupled simulations using the Community Earth System Model were performed; the CONTROL experiment was configured with the standard total solar irradiation value and the TSI10p experiment with a 10% increase. TSI10p experiment revealed latitudinal shifts in atmospheric pressure belts, and the energy input increased the mean surface air temperature by 7°C. This temperature increase led to an increase in the surface heat flux. Additional changes in the atmosphere were identified, such as moister summers and drier winters in mid-latitudes and changes in planetary runoff and ocean salinity.n

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Abstract

nIn exploring the potential design and construction of Martian habitats, one of the key factors that need to be taken into account is the environmental condition on the surface of Mars, which is drastically different from that of Earth and poses unique challenges. Innovative designs and construction technologies must be utilized to overcome these obstacles. In addition, the building materials should be those that can be locally obtained and must possess the properties and characteristics that would ensure the safety and longevity of the structures. This paper presents an overall portrayal of various Martian habitat designs, 3D printing technologies, and construction materials that have been proposed in recent years including the award winning Martian habitat proposals presented at the NASA’s 3D-Printed Habitat Centennial Challenge. Also presented are discussions on some of the important considerations that must be thought of in order to successfully establish the human presence on Mars.n

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