C. Armenta -Déu
Antonio Martínez
- Professor, Department of Matter Structure, Thermal Physics and Electronics, Faculty of Physical Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Professor, Department of Matter Structure, Thermal Physics and Electronics, Faculty of Physical Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Abstract
The paper develops a detail study on how to reduce carbon emissions in sensitive and congested urban
areas where people are especially affected by GHG pollution. The study focuses on the analysis of
traffic restrictions to private and public vehicles which does not fulfil specific conditions for entering
the so called “Low Emissions Zone” (LEZ). The article uses a simulation to reproduce current driving
in modern cities and how the use of electric vehicles contribute to maintain air quality and
environmental preservation. The simulation runs on the analysis of dynamic equations of vehicle
driving, evaluating the reduction of the various GHG types and their influence on people health. Energy
consumption and vehicle performance represent key parameters to determine the absolute reduction of
carbon emissions and lowering the GHG impact factor. The article also deals with the detection way
of carbon emission by vehicles in LEZ and the actions to block the access. Artificial Intelligence is also
applied to the traffic management to avoid contaminating cars entering the LEZ or to modify the driving
pattern so the GHG emissions from circulating vehicles vanishes. The paper proposes an innovative
methodology to measure GHG emissions at the LEZ entrance, commanded by an intelligent control
system that blocks or detours vehicles with GHG emissions above set up threshold. The results of the
simulations show the proposed method is feasible and achieve near 100% reduction of carbon emissions
at optimum operating conditions and above 90% reduction, on average.
Keywords: Low emissions zones, carbon emissions reduction, urban congested areas, simulation, GHG measurement, traffic regulation and restrictions
[This article belongs to Journal of Energy, Environment & Carbon Credits(joeecc)]
References
Lei, H., Zeng, S., Namaiti, A., & Zeng, J. (2023). The Impacts of Road Traffic on Urban Carbon Emissions and the Corresponding Planning Strategies. Land, 12(4), 800.
2. Wu, K., Chen, Y., Ma, J., Bai, S., & Tang, X. (2017). Traffic and emissions impact of congestion charging in the central Beijing urban area: A simulation analysis. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 51, 203–215.
3. Ou, J., Liu, X., Li, X., & Chen, Y. (2013). Quantifying the relationship between urban forms and carbon emissions using panel data analysis. Landscape ecology, 28, 1889–1907. 4. Internal Combustion Engines (ICE) counted for over 90% of global car sales in H1 2019. JATO Blog. https://www.jato.com/internal-combustion-engines-ice-counted-for-over-90-of-global-car-sales-in-h1-2019/ [Accessed online: 25/04/2024] 5. Number of cars sold, by type, World. Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/car-sales [Accessed online: 25/04/2024] 6. Global motor vehicle sales by type from 2016 to 2022. Transportation & Logistics. Vehicles & Road Traffic. Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1097326/worldwide-motor-vehicle-sales-by-type/ [Accessed online: 25/04/2024] 7. Fernández, R. Á. (2018). A more realistic approach to electric vehicle contribution to greenhouse gas emissions in the city. Journal of Cleaner Production, 172, 949-959.` 8. Mondal, P., Abhishek Kumar, A. K., Varun Agarwal, V. A., Nitin Sharma, N. S., Prashant Vijay, P. V., Bhangale, U. D., & Dinesh Tyagi, D. T. (2011). Critical review of trends in GHG emissions from global automotive sector. 9. Lulić, Z., issoni, ., & Tomić, R. ( ). The relevance of emissions from motor vehicles. Transactions of FAMENA, 37(2), 39–56. 10. Sundblad, E. L., Biel, A., & Gärling, T. (2014). Intention to change activities that reduce carbon dioxide emissions related to worry about global climate change consequences. European review of applied psychology, 64(1), 13–17. 11. Santi, C., & Moretti, A. (2021). Carbon risk premium and worries about climate change. Available at SSRN 3942738. 12. Alriksson, S., & Filipsson, M. (2017). Risk perception and worry in environmental decision-making–a case study within the Swedish steel industry. Journal of Risk Research, 20(9), 1173–1194.
Low Emissions Zone Déu and Martínez
© STM Journals 2024. All Rights Reserved 21
13. Tol, R. S. (2008). Why worry about climate change? A research agenda. Environmental values, 17(4), 437–470. 14. Begley, J., Berkeley, N., Donnelly, T., & Jarvis, D. (2016). National policy-making and the promotion of electric vehicles. International Journal of Automotive Technology and Management, 16(3), 319–340. 15. Kester, J., Noel, L., de Rubens, G. Z., & Sovacool, B. K. (2018). Policy mechanisms to accelerate electric vehicle adoption: A qualitative review from the Nordic region. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 94, 719–731. 16. Sechel, I. C., & Mariasiu, F. (2021). Efficiency of governmental policy and programs to stimulate the use of low-emission and electric vehicles: The case of Romania. Sustainability, 14(1), 45. 17. Rietmann, N., & Lieven, T. (2019). How policy measures succeeded to promote electric mobility–Worldwide review and outlook. Journal of cleaner production, 206, 66–75. 18. Ferguson, M., Mohamed, M., Higgins, C. D., Abotalebi, E., & Kanaroglou, P. (2018). How open are Canadian households to electric vehicles? A national latent class choice analysis with willingness-to-pay and metropolitan characterization. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 58, 208–224. 19. Berkeley, N., Jarvis, D., & Jones, A. (2018). Analysing the take up of battery electric vehicles: An investigation of barriers amongst drivers in the UK. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 63, 466–481. 20. Bessenbach, N., & Wallrapp, S. (2013). Why do consumers resist buying electric vehicles. An empirical study of innovation perception and the effect of consumer characteristics, innovation exposure and buying incentives. Copenhagen Business School. 21. Tarei, P. K., Chand, P., & Gupta, H. (2021). Barriers to the adoption of electric vehicles: Evidence from India. Journal of Cleaner Production, 291, 125847. 22. Haddadian, G., Khodayar, M., & Shahidehpour, M. (2015). Accelerating the global adoption of electric vehicles: barriers and drivers. The Electricity Journal, 28(10), 53–68. 23. Clemens, ., & ouglas, T. . ( ). oes coercion drive firms to adopt ‘voluntary’green initiatives? Relationships among coercion, superior firm resources, and voluntary green initiatives. Journal of business research, 59(4), 483–491. 24. Broadbent, G. H., Metternicht, G., & Drozdzewski, D. (2019). An analysis of consumer incentives in support of electric vehicle uptake: An Australian case study. World Electric Vehicle Journal, 10(1), 11. 25. Langbroek, J. H., Franklin, J. P., & Susilo, Y. O. (2016). The effect of policy incentives on electric vehicle adoption. Energy Policy, 94, 94–103. 26. Wang, X. W., Cao, Y. M., & Zhang, N. (2021). The influences of incentive policy perceptions and consumer social attributes on battery electric vehicle purchase intentions. Energy Policy, 151, 112163. 27. Zhang, X., Bai, X., & Shang, J. (2018). Is subsidized electric vehicles adoption sustainable: Consumers’ perceptions and motivation toward incentive policies, environmental benefits, and risks. Journal of Cleaner Production, 192, 71–79. 28. Kwon, Y., Son, S., & Jang, K. (2018). Evaluation of incentive policies for electric vehicles: An experimental study on Jeju Island. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 116, 404–412. 29. Snelling, A. (2018). Evaluation of State Plug-In Electric Vehicle Purchase Incentive Programs: What Drives Vehicle Uptake?. 30. Münzel, C., Plötz, P., Sprei, F., & Gnann, T. (2019). How large is the effect of financial incentives on electric vehicle sales?–A global review and European analysis. Energy Economics, 84, 104493. 31. Zhou, X., Zhao, R., Cheng, L., & Min, X. (2019). Impact of policy incentives on electric vehicles development: a system dynamics-based evolutionary game theoretical analysis. Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy, 21, 1039–1053. 32. Plötz, P., Axsen, J., Funke, S. A., & Gnann, T. (2019). Designing car bans for sustainable transportation. Nature Sustainability, 2(7), 534–536.
Journal of Energy, Environment & Carbon Credits
Volume 14, Issue 1
ISSN: 2249-8621
© STM Journals 2024. All Rights Reserved 22
33. Morfeldt, J., Kurland, S. D., & Johansson, D. J. (2021). Carbon footprint impacts of banning cars with internal combustion engines. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 95, 102807. 34. Fulton, L. M., Jaffe, A., & McDonald, Z. (2019). Internal combustion engine bans and global oil use. 35. Yan, S., & Mulholland, E. Deep Decarbonization of the Transport Sector: Banning the Sale of Diesel and Petrol Vehicles. 36. acyna, ., Żochows a, R., obota, A., & Wasia , . ( ). cenario analyses of e haust emissions reduction through the introduction of electric vehicles into the city. Energies, 14(7), 2030. 37. Burch, I., & Gilchrist, J. (2018). Survey of global activity to phase out internal combustion engine vehicles. Center of Climate Protection: Santa Rosa, CA, USA. 38. Javid, R. J., Nejat, A., & Hayhoe, K. (2014). Selection of CO2 mitigation strategies for road transportation in the United States using a multi-criteria approach. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 38, 960–972. 39. Urban Access Regulations in Europe. https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/low-emission-zones-main [Accessed online: 25/04/2024] 40. EU: Low Emissions Zones (LEZ). Emissions Standards. Diesel Net. https://dieselnet.com/standards/eu/lez.php [Accessed online: 25/04/2024] 41. European Low Emissions Zones. LEZ rules could mean access restrictions or charges. https://www.theaa.com/european-breakdown-cover/driving-in-europe/european-low-emission-zones [Accessed online: 25/04/2024] 42. Low Emission Zone. European Data. The official portal for European data. https://data.europa.eu/data/datasets/low_emission_zone?locale=es [Accessed online: 25/04/2024] 43. Total number of declared low-emission zones (LEZs) in Europe in 2022, with a projection for 2025, by country. Energy & Environment. Emissions. Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1321264/low-emission-zones-europe-by-country/ [Accessed online: 25/04/2024] 44. U. A. R. in Europe, What are Low Emission Zones? https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/low-emission-zones-main/what-are-low-emission-zones [Accessed online: 26/04/2024] 45. O. M. de la Salud, Directrices mundiales de la OMS sobre la calidad del aire, 2021. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/346062/9789240035461-spa.pdf. [Accessed online: 26/04/2024] 46. E. E. Agency, Air quality in Europe 2022, feb. de 2023. doi: 10.2800/488115. https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/air-quality-in-europe-2022 [Accessed online: 26/04/2024] 47. D. A. Vallero, Fundamentals of Air Pollution. Elsevier Science y Technology, 2014, ISBN: 9780124046023. 48. World Health Organization (WHO). Air pollution. https://www.who.int/health-topics/air-pollution#tab=tab_1 [Accessed online: 26/04/2024] 49. P. Europeo y C. Europea, Directiva 2008-50-CE, mayo de 2008. https://www.miteco.gob.es/es/calidad-y-evaluacion-ambiental/temas/atmosfera-y-calidad-del-aire/calidad-del-aire/normativa/normativa-europea.html [Accessed online: 26/04/2024] 50. J. D. Estado, Disposición 8447 del BOE nº 121 de 2021, mayo de 2021. https://www.boe.es [Accessed online: 26/04/2024] 51. Rios-Cabrera, R., Tuytelaars, T., & Van Gool, L. (2012). Efficient multi-camera vehicle detection, tracking, and identification in a tunnel surveillance application. Computer Vision and Image Understanding, 116(6), 742–753. 52. González-Cepeda, J., Ramajo, Á., & Armingol, J. M. (2022). Intelligent video surveillance systems for vehicle identification based on multinet architecture. Information, 13(7), 325. 53. Dlagnekov, L. (2005). Video-based car surveillance: License plate, make, and model reconition (Doctoral dissertation, University of California, San Diego).
Low Emissions Zone Déu and Martínez
© STM Journals 2024. All Rights Reserved 23
54. Abdulrahim, K., & Salam, R. A. (2016). Traffic surveillance: A review of vision based vehicle detection, recognition and tracking. International journal of applied engineering research, 11(1), 713–726. 55. Shobha, B. S., & Deepu, R. (2018, December). A review on video based vehicle detection, recognition and tracking. In 2018 3rd International conference on computational systems and information technology for sustainable solutions (CSITSS) (pp. 183–186). IEEE. 56. Srivastava, S., & Delp, E. J. (2013). Video-based real-time surveillance of vehicles. Journal of Electronic Imaging, 22(4), 041103–041103. 57. Tang, Y., Zhang, C., Gu, R., Li, P., & Yang, B. (2017). Vehicle detection and recognition for intelligent traffic surveillance system. Multimedia tools and applications, 76, 5817–5832. 58. Chen, Y. L., Chen, T. S., Huang, T. W., Yin, L. C., Wang, S. Y., & Chiueh, T. C. (2013, March). Intelligent urban video surveillance system for automatic vehicle detection and tracking in clouds. In 2013 IEEE 27th international conference on advanced information networking and applications (AINA) (pp. 814–821). IEEE. 59. KR, V., & Patnaik, L. M. (2008). Moving vehicle identification using background registration technique for traffic surveillance. In Proceedings of the International MultiConference of Engineers and Computer Scientists (Vol. 1). 60. H. D. Young, R. A. Freedman, A. E. G. Hernández, M. W. Zemansky, F. W. Sears y A. L. Ford, FÍSICA UNIVERSITARIA, 14ª ed. Pearson, 2018, vol. I, ISBN: 9786073244411. 61. IDAE, Base de datos de vehículos. https://coches.idae.es/base-datos [Accessed online: 10/03/2024] 62. Armenta-Déu, C., Carmona, L., Rincón, C. (2023) Analysis and Evaluation of the Electric Vehicles Carbon Footprint: Application to Environmental Urban Areas, ISSN: 2249–8621. doi: https://doi.org/10.37591/JoEECC 63. Armenta-Déu. C., Cattin, E. (2021) Real driving range in electric vehicles: Influence on fuel consumption and carbon emissions. World Electric Vehicle Journal, vol. 12, ISSN:20326653. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040166 64. Armenta-Déu, C., Arenas, A. (2023) Performance Analysis of Electric Vehicles with a Fuel Cell– upercapacitor ybrid ystem,” ng, vol. , pags. –2292, ISSN: 26734117. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/eng4030130. 65. km77, Ford Focus Berlina ST-Line 1.5 EcoBlue 85 kW (115 CV) Aut. 8 vel. (2023) — Precio y ficha técnica. https://www.km77.com/coches/ford/focus/2022/berlina/estandar/focus-berlina-st-line-15-ecoblue-85-kw-115-cv-aut-8-vel/datos. [Accessed online: 13/03/2024] 66. Romacar, FORD Focus 2022: Precio, ficha técnica, fotos y vídeo. https://www.romacarabs.com/ford-focus-precio/#:~:text=Un%20superventas%20de%20cinco%20puertas,coeficiente%20aerodin%C3%A1mico%20de%200%2C27 [Accessed online: 13/03/2024] 67. Heat Values of Various Fuels. World Nuclear Association. https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/facts-and-figures/heat-values-of-various-fuels.aspx [Accessed online: 26/04/2024] 68. Fuel Properties Comparison. Alternative Fuels Data Center. Efficiency Energy & Renewable Energies. US Department of Energy (DOE). https://afdc.energy.gov/fuels/properties [Accessed online: 26/05/2024] 69. Prakash, J., Habib, G. On Road Emission Measurement from Diesel, Gasoline and CNG Passenger Cars. doi: https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.5163.5520 70. Woo, S. H., Jang, H., Lee, S. B., Lee, S. (2022) Comparison of total PM emissions emitted from electric and internal combustion engine vehicles: An experimental analysis. Science of the Total Environment, vol. 842, ISSN: 18791026. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv. 2022.156961 71. Valverde, V., Mora, B. A., Clairotte, M. et al. (2019) Emission factors derived from 13 Euro 6b light-duty vehicles based on laboratory and on-road measurements. Atmosphere, vol. 10, ISSN: 20734433. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos10050243 72. Mickunaitis, V., Pikunas, A., Mackoit, I. Reducing Fuel Consumption And CO2 Emission In Motor Cars,” vol. XXII, pages 160–163, ISSN: 1648–3480. www.transport.vgtu.lt. [Accessed online: 27/04/2024]
Journal of Energy, Environment & Carbon Credits
Volume 14, Issue 1
ISSN: 2249-8621
© STM Journals 2024. All Rights Reserved 24
73. Red Eléctrica, Emisiones Y Factor De Emision De CO2 EQ. DE LA Generacion. https://www.ree.es/es/datos/generacion/no-renovables-detalle-emisiones-CO2 [Accessed online: 12/03/2024] 74. Ideauto, Parque de vehículos 2023, Parque de vehículos español en 2023. https://anfac.com/publicaciones/informe-ideauto-parque-de-vehiculos-2023/ [Accessed online: 31/03/2024] 75. Portal de datos abiertos del Ayuntamiento de Madrid, Tráfico. Intensidad media en días laborables. https://datos.madrid.es/portal/site/egob/menuitem.c05c1f754a33a9fbe4b2e4b284f1a5a0/?vgnextoid=1a9fd0e209b45410VgnVCM1000000b205a0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=374512b9ace9f310VgnVCM100000171f5a0aRCRD&vgnextfmt=default [Accessed online: 30/03/2024]
76.
Worldwide Daily Driving Distance is 25- m? What about AU, U , UK, U and … Worldwide Daily Driving Distance is 25-50km? What about AU, US, UK, EU, and… (solaronev.com) [Accessed online: 29/04/2024]
Journal of Energy, Environment & Carbon Credits
| Volume | 14 |
| Issue | 01 |
| Received | May 6, 2024 |
| Accepted | May 15, 2024 |
| Published | June 14, 2024 |